Differences between Sex & Gender

• Sex is defined by biology and is usually assigned at birth, or even after a scan done before birth, based primarily on the male or female genitalia of the newborn baby
• Sex is later confirmed by blood tests that identify chromosomes , and at and after puberty the larger concentration of the male hormone (testosterone) or the female hormone (oestrogen) which are responsible for the physical development of the adult male or female body
• Gender is more complicated: it is the person’s self-representation as masculine or feminine and how their behaviour confirms that
• This means that gender is not a biological fact, but a social construct
• Gender schema theory states that once children have identified themselves as girls or boys they are motivated to be like others in their gender group, and this leads them to observe and imitate same-sex role models and conform to their sex-role expectations, which match their gender schema (e.g. girls play with dolls; boys play with toy trucks)
• Sex and gender often align, but they do not necessarily have to. When there is a mismatch, it can cause distress and a feeling of being trapped in the ‘wrong body’, which is called gender dysphoria

• Sex-role stereotypes are the result of social and cultural beliefs about what is ‘normal’ male and female behaviour 
• Children learn these roles from a very early age, with societal different expectations of little boys and little girls imposed upon them, and these expectations continue throughout their lives 
• Some examples of sex-role stereotypes are:
  • Boys and men are stronger than girls and women, who are physically weak
  • Boys and men are more independent than girls and women, who are dependent upon them
  • Boys and men are less emotional than girls and women, who are viewed as overly emotional
  • Boys and men are more competitive than girls and women, who are cooperative
• Sex-role expectations are taught through socialisation of norms regarding appropriate gender behaviour, toys, school subjects, careers and parenting roles, as a mother or a father
• As a result of socialisation sex-role stereotypes become internalised as normal 
• Children not only conform to their own sex-roles by exhibiting masculine or feminine behaviour, but they may try to control other children as well, and quickly subject them to pressure to conform
• The media plays a large part in sex-role stereotyping, with online social media images of men and women, films and magazines all combining to reinforce the stereotypes of ‘masculine men’ and ‘feminine women’
• Although many of the sex-role expectations for men and women are cross-cultural, such as men being the main financial supported of the household and women being the main carers of the children, there are some exceptions (see the example below) 
• Margaret Mead (1935) found that the Tchambuli tribe of Papua new Guinea had a reversal of ‘normal’ western roles: men were nurturing and women were aggressive, suggesting that sex-role stereotypes are dependent on culture

Sex-role stereotyping starts from a very early age

Research which investigates sex-role stereotyping

• Smith and Lloyd (1978) conducted an experiment using naturalistic observation to investigate how sex-role stereotyping affected a mother’s toy choice for a baby and found that they chose a ‘boy’s toy’ and were more active with a baby perceived as a boy than if they thought it was a girl
• Sroufe et al. (1993) used a field experiment with structured observation to investigate if sex-role stereotypes were reinforced by peers in pre-adolescent children and found that the few 10-11 year-olds who did not behave in a typical way for their sex were the least popular, suggesting that peer socialization is an important factor in controlling sex-role expectations

Evaluation of differences between sex and gender

Strengths

• Sex-role stereotypes can differ substantially cross-culturally (Mead, 1935), suggesting that the characteristics associated with sex roles are culturally and socially learned and so negative sex-role stereotyping could be addressed by providing learning experiences for children that reinforce the idea of positive sex roles
• Research and day-to-day experience demonstrates that sex-role stereotypes are reinforced by the media and so supports the theory that sex-role expectations are transmitted through sex-role stereotypes

Weaknesses

• Categorising behaviours, and qualities as either masculine or feminine may restrict the positive roles that both males and females could play in society, like male child minders or female scientists
• Does not explain how individuals resist being socialised into traditional sex roles

Link to Issues & Debates: 

The difference between sex and gender can be seen as an example of the nature/nurture debate. While sex is determined from the moment of conception and assigned at birth, gender could be argued to be socially constructed through gender schemas composed of sex-role expectations.

Biological psychologists argue that gender is innate, because, for example, women tend to be smaller and less muscular than men, have higher-pitched voices and less body hair, as well as of course the differences in genitalia.  This sexual dimorphism is believed by psychologists of the biological approach to determine the psychological traits associated with each gender.  Therefore, the biological approach argues that, in the same way that chromosomes and hormones determine an individual’s sex, they also determine whether a person will behave in a more feminine or masculine way.

However, if gender is determined by sex this would mean that there would be none of the cross-cultural differences in masculine or feminine behaviour, identified by Mead (1935) and others after her. Of course, nature and nurture interact and there is no behaviour that can be exclusively one or the other, but sex owes more to nature and gender is created through sex-role stereotyping, which is more nurture.