Issues & Solutions to Problems of Urban Areas (CIE IGCSE Geography)

Problems within urban areas

• There are many problems throughout the urban area 
• Some are specific to particular zones, whilst others are more general:
  • The CBD for instance, has a particular problem with the lack of space for development, the high cost of land and meeting strict planning and government policies
  • Congestion and pollution are concentrated in the CBD but is also a general urban issue
• Other problems include:
  • Pollution
  • Inequality
  • Housing 
  • Congestion
  • Crime
  • Land-use change 

Congestion

• Congestion can delay journeys and make people late to their destinations
• It increases fuel consumption 
• Adds to emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants
• Has a negative impact on people's health due to stress and poor air quality - diesel fumes are carcinogenic

Pollution

• Pollution can be divided into air, noise, light, visual and water

Air

• Half of the world's urban population is affected by poor air quality
• Thousands of people die each year from air pollution-related conditions - asthma, lung cancer etc.
• With the growth of industrial development and population, there is a rise in the number of vehicles 
• This increases the demand for energy, heating etc and with rapid urbanisation in LEDCs the rate of pollution is worse
• Few LEDCs have the resources to cope with this - India has some of the most polluted cities in the world and the causes include:
  • Burning fuelwood indoors
  • Using paraffin for cooking and heating
  • Weak or no government pollution controls
  • Use of cheap or poor grade coal
  • Burning of rubbish and plastics
• MEDCs have been through de-industrialisation and have the economic, political and technology to deal with air pollution
• A major source of air pollution is car emissions and many LEDCs do not have fuel-efficient, up-to-date vehicles
• Also, crowded and poorly organised road systems add to the problem of congestion but also air and noise pollution

Noise

• Noise pollution arises from a number of things:
  • Road traffic
  • People
  • Music
  • Weather 
  • Road surfaces
  • Barriers
  • Doors and shutters etc.
• Noise pollution has been associated with mental stress, anger issues, sleep deprivation, hypertension and heart disease

Light

• Light pollution is common where any form of human habitation is found
• Light pollution arises from street lighting, homes, shops, factories, and offices
• The 'bright city lights' have always been a discussion point for the 'pull' factor of cities
• Light pollution is linked to headaches, loss of sleep, disruption of nocturnal animals and wasted energy
• Cities can be seen from space due to their lighting

Visual

• This is where the 'look' of the area becomes offensive
• It can be different for each person, but can include:
  • Run-down, derelict buildings, streets or neighbourhoods
  • Graffiti and tagging
  • New architecture or roadways

Water

• Water pollution causes a variety of diseases, such as diarrhoea and dysentery, which can lead to death
• Water pollution is widespread as rivers are used to dump large amounts of pollutants from a variety of sources, including:
  • Industrial discharge
  • Vehicles
  • Residential/commercial wastewater
  • Rubbish 
  • Chemicals and other toxic wastes
  • Polluted stormwater and runoff from urban landscapes

Inequality

• All cities have inequality ranging from wealth to housing to employment
• The wealthy can afford to live in the desirable area, with the poor being located at the fringes of the inner city, edge of town estates or high-rise flats
• In LEDCs, as poor rural migrants arrive, there is a lack of affordable housing and demand is high
• Temporary or informal settlements arise, adding to overcrowding and poor living conditions, so adding to already cramped/congested conditions around the fringes of the city
• Many people are unable to find formal, regulated, regular employment and this leads to high levels of unemployment, underemployment, or informal unregulated employment 
• The informal sector is the main employment for many people in LEDCs
• Even when there are new factories with regular paid opportunities, these are often too far away from areas where newcomers live
• There is inequality in terms of educational attainment and achievements. access to healthcare, and other opportunities, with the wealthy supporting their children and family throughout their younger lives and beyond
• Poorer families expect their children to work to help support the family and this leads to a lack of general education and skills
• Literacy & numeracy rates are lowest in LEDC countries

Housing

• Housing is expensive in relation to general wages, with many families sharing one house or just a room
• Opportunities for landlords to set high rents and no building maintenance (slum landlord)
• Poor transport links, make inner city housing the most desirable and expensive
• There is a division in the quality of housing available, with many houses in LEDCs without adequate space, running water or sanitation
• Waste removal is inadequate or non-existent, leading to the spread of diseases
• Lack of access to electricity leads to people burning fuelwood, coal or paraffin 

Crime

• Crime is concentrated in areas of high population densities: congested areas
• Crime is partly due to a lack of job opportunities and large-scale unemployment
• Main criminal activities include drug and human trafficking, drug abuse, violence (domestic and social), rape, and robbery
• The poorest areas of the city (slums) are usually ruled by gangs and intimidation
• The wealthier areas see car theft, kidnapping, and property damage

• Urban sprawl is a common problem around the world and is the outward spread of a city 
• Noticeable in areas which have low-density suburbs (e.g. detached houses with large gardens)
• Issues include:
  • Higher emissions due to car dependency (people have to commute further and increased traffic)
  • Lost time due to commuting and can lead to lower productivity
  • Loss of rural way of life and character of the countryside
  • Higher costs for public transport and social facilities (local governments have to spread out their budgets further) which further impacts health care, fire and policing facilities
• Planning regulations can reduce urban sprawl
• The UK has greenbelts around many cities to restrict development into the countryside and force the development of brownfield sites
• However, developers have overcome these 'greenbelts' by jumping over into rural villages and turning them into dormitory villages for longer commutes

Land-use change

• Urban growth involves building on the land, which is in short supply in the urban centres
• This makes the open land around the urban fringe desirable for housing, industry, shopping, recreation, hospitals and public utilities such as recycling centres, reservoirs and sewerage facilities
• However, some feel too much countryside is being lost through this outward growth of towns and cities, but urban areas still need to grow 
• This means two choices, either build on a greenfield site or a brownfield site
• With all land uses there are arguments for and against each type of site

Brownfields Vs Greenfields

• Sustainability is a need for social, economic and environmental factors to be managed so that people can have a better quality of life
• In the past, city planners did not take into account the impact of future growth on the health and stability of their towns and cities
• Any inner-city regeneration/rebranding or urban fringe development needs to consider sustainable urban living 
• The challenge is for towns and cities to reduce their ecological footprint whilst also tackling social inequalities
• There are several activities that any urban region can attempt:
  • Reduce the reliance on fossil fuels through the use of renewable
  • Energy efficient goods in public buildings, homes, offices and shops 
  • Use public rather than private transport to reduce pollution 
  • Provide green spaces (greening the city) for families to use
  • Recycle water to conserve supplies
  • Conserve cultural/historical buildings and environmental sites for future generations
  • Minimise the use of greenfield sites and use brownfield sites instead 
  • Involve local communities and provide a range of employment
• Many companies are starting to adopt corporate sustainability and attempt to reduce their carbon footprint by focusing on how their business affects the environment
• Some methods include:
  • Reducing the amount of packaging
  • Recyclable packaging
  • Trading locally 
  • Using renewable energy and other low-energy devices (lights, monitors etc.)
• Cities also need to be economically sustainable, or they can become bankrupt
  • Detroit, Michigan became the largest city in US history (2013) to file for bankruptcy after its revenue fell due to a declining population, rising unemployment and a lack of property and income taxes
• Urban environmental sustainability is looking at the whole of the city, from food to energy to waste management to green spaces and transport and infrastructure
• Cities can invest in public transport, not only does it improve the efficiency and safety of buses and trains, but also reduces pollution and congestion
• Encourage the use of bicycles
  • Bristol was the UK's first city to promote cycling, investing in cycle lanes and supporting bike projects
• Promote car sharing to reduce congestion and improve air quality
  • Many cities have dedicated carpool lanes which makes getting around the city easier and quicker
• Investment in Park and Ride to reduce car usage within the city centre and therefore, improve the overall environment
• Many cities have congestion charges for people who decide to drive into the city centre
  • London has a strict congestion charge and has reduced its levels of pollution by approximately 25% and stopped 13,500 cars a day entering the city centre
• Ecotown developments are another sustainable measure
  • Designed to reduce its overall footprint and encourage strong community ties
  • All homes have energy saving measures, such as a community biomass boiler, free wi-fi to encourage home working and less commuting
  • All homes have triple glazed homes, extra insulation, solar panels and low energy lightbulbs and kitchen appliances
  • Green spaces to protect and enhance wildlife

• Seoul has been the capital of South Korea for over 600 years
• It is a global megacity with a population of 10 million, and one of the densest municipalities (central city) in the world, with an area of 605 km² and 16 thousand people per km² (that's more than Tokyo!)
• It has between 26 million and 36 million people within the Metropolitan Region, including major cities of Gwangju and Incheon
• It has developed quickly over the last 50 years with GDP growing by over 400 times from $84 to $34,000 per capita in 2021
• It is surrounded by mountains and the Hangang River flows through the city

 Map of South Korea

• Due to the mountainous terrain around Seoul, less than 45% of land is available for development
• Seoul the side-effects of its rapid growth include:
  •  Housing shortage due in-migration and changes in family dynamics (two rather than three generations in one house)
    • The building of apartment blocks has helped to reduce the shortage, with many being built in the poorer areas north of the river
    • However, they have destroyed communities through these block apartments
    • Satellite towns have also been built south of the river to accommodate the wealthier citizens, but this has brought further divide
    • The natural landscape of the city is damaged through uniform development of office and apartment blocks
    • Development has damaged historical and cultural resources that made Seoul a cultural centre for over 2000 years
  • Congestion and pollution - despite improvements to traffic networks, the number of cars has increased, and the older, central roads are small and unable to handle large volumes of traffic
    • Water pollution due to sewage and chemicals resulted in Cheong Gye Cheon River in central Seoul being covered with an elevated road. However, air pollution through increased traffic resulted and so did congestion. The road was demolished, and the river restored resulting in a regeneration of the waterway with an open green area for visitors and residents
  • Inequality - youth unemployment and an ageing population with the gap between rich and poor increasing
    • The high-tech industrial area, south of the city, has good schools, accessibility and high-income residents
    • The poorer areas, with traditional manufacturing, are found north and west of the river Han
    • Many of the developments are at the fringe of the city and further, creating the urban sprawl that Seoul is now suffering, with new town developments being up to 45 km from central Seoul (Dongtan New Town is an hour south of Seoul approx. 40 km)