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Edexcel A (SNAB) A Level Biology

Revision Notes

Home / A Level / Biology / Edexcel A (SNAB) / Revision Notes / 7. Run for your Life / 7.1 Muscles & Movement / 7.1.1 Movement of the Skeleton


7.1.1 Movement of the Skeleton


Movement of the Skeleton

  • The effective movement of the human body requires both muscle and an incompressible skeleton
    • This is because muscles will only produce effective movement if they pull on a structure that does not shorten or bend - bone
  • There are over 600 skeletal muscles in the human body
  • Muscles are effectors, stimulated by nerve impulses from motor neurones
  • The muscular system is complex, with multiple muscles crossing over each other in multiple directions
  • Lengths of strong connective tissue called tendons, connect muscles to bones
    • They are flexible but do not stretch when a muscle is contracting and pulling on a bone
    • There are a few muscles with very long tendons and also a few that are directly attached to the bone
  • Ligaments are also lengths of strong connective tissue but they connect bones to other bones, which keep the skeleton intact

Antagonistic muscle action

  • Muscles are only capable of contracting or pulling, they cannot push
  • As a result of this limitation muscles generally operate in pairs
  • A muscle pulls in one direction at a joint and the other muscle pulls in the opposite direction
    • This is described as antagonistic muscle action
  • An example of this can be seen in the biceps and triceps of the arm
  • To raise the lower arm
    • The bicep contracts and the tricep relaxes
    • As the bone can't be stretched the arm flexes around the joint
    • A muscle that bends a joint during contraction is known as a flexor (the bicep in this case)
    • This brings the tricep into its full length so that it can contract again
  • To lower the lower arm
    • The tricep contracts and bicep relaxes
    • As the bone can't be stretched the arm flexes around the joint
    • A muscle that straightens a joint during contraction is known as an extensor (the tricep in this case)

Muscle pair

Antagonistic muscle action: the two muscles work together by pulling in opposite directions



  • 1. Lifestyle, Health and Risk
    • 1.1 The Circulatory System
      • 1.1.1 The Need for a Circulatory System
        • 1.1.2 The Importance of Water in Transport
          • 1.1.3 Mammalian Heart: Structure & Function
            • 1.1.4 Blood Vessels: Structure & Function
              • 1.1.5 Cardiac Cycle
                • 1.1.6 Investigating Heart Rate
                  • 1.1.7 Atherosclerosis
                    • 1.1.8 Blood Clotting
                    • 1.2 Diet & Health
                      • 1.2.1 Cardiovascular Disease
                        • 1.2.2 Interpreting Data on Risk Factors
                          • 1.2.3 Treatment of CVD
                            • 1.2.4 Energy Budgets & Diet
                              • 1.2.5 Monosaccharides
                                • 1.2.6 The Glycosidic Bond
                                  • 1.2.7 Disaccharides
                                    • 1.2.8 Polysaccharides
                                      • 1.2.9 Lipids & Ester Bonds
                                        • 1.2.10 Reducing Risk Factors of CVD
                                          • 1.2.11 Practical: Vitamin C Content
                                        • 2. Genes and Health
                                          • 2.1 Gas Exchange, Cell Membranes & Transport
                                            • 2.1.1 Properties of Gas Exchange Surfaces
                                              • 2.1.2 Fick's Law of Diffusion
                                                • 2.1.3 The Mammalian Lung
                                                  • 2.1.4 Cell Membranes
                                                    • 2.1.5 Practical: Investigating Membrane Structure & Permeability
                                                      • 2.1.6 Diffusion & Facilitated Diffusion
                                                        • 2.1.7 Active Transport
                                                          • 2.1.8 Osmosis
                                                          • 2.2 Nucleic Acids
                                                            • 2.2.1 Nucleotides & Phosphodiester Bonds
                                                              • 2.2.2 DNA: Structure
                                                                • 2.2.3 RNA: Structure
                                                                • 2.3 Proteins
                                                                  • 2.3.1 Transcription
                                                                    • 2.3.2 Translation
                                                                      • 2.3.3 Nature of the Genetic Code
                                                                        • 2.3.4 Amino Acids & Peptide Bonds
                                                                          • 2.3.5 Levels of Protein Structure
                                                                            • 2.3.6 Globular Proteins: Structure & Function
                                                                              • 2.3.7 Fibrous Proteins: Structure & Function
                                                                                • 2.3.8 The Role of Enzymes
                                                                                  • 2.3.9 Mode of Enzyme Action
                                                                                    • 2.3.10 Practical: Investigating the Effect Enzyme and Substrate Concentrations
                                                                                    • 2.4 Inheritance
                                                                                      • 2.4.1 DNA Replication
                                                                                        • 2.4.2 Mutations
                                                                                          • 2.4.3 Inheritance: Key Terms
                                                                                            • 2.4.4 Pedigree Diagrams
                                                                                              • 2.4.5 Monohybrid Crosses
                                                                                                • 2.4.6 Chi-squared Test
                                                                                                  • 2.4.7 Genetic Screening
                                                                                                • 3. Voice of the Genome
                                                                                                  • 3.1 Cell Structure & Organisation
                                                                                                    • 3.1.1 Cell Theory
                                                                                                      • 3.1.2 Eukaryotic Cells
                                                                                                        • 3.1.3 Prokaryotic Cells
                                                                                                          • 3.1.4 Organisation of Cells
                                                                                                            • 3.1.5 Microscopy
                                                                                                              • 3.1.6 Magnification Calculations
                                                                                                                • 3.1.7 Recognising Organelles
                                                                                                                • 3.2 Cell Division
                                                                                                                  • 3.2.1 The Cell Cycle
                                                                                                                    • 3.2.2 Mitosis
                                                                                                                      • 3.2.3 Practical: Identifying Mitosis in Plant Cells
                                                                                                                      • 3.3 Reproduction & Inheritance
                                                                                                                        • 3.3.1 Mammalian Gametes
                                                                                                                          • 3.3.2 Fertilisation in Mammals
                                                                                                                            • 3.3.3 Genes & Linkage
                                                                                                                              • 3.3.4 Meiosis: Source of Genetic Variation
                                                                                                                              • 3.4 Differentiation & Variation
                                                                                                                                • 3.4.1 Stem Cells
                                                                                                                                  • 3.4.2 Stem Cells in Medicine
                                                                                                                                    • 3.4.3 Cell Differentiation
                                                                                                                                      • 3.4.4 Epigenetics
                                                                                                                                        • 3.4.5 Phenotypes & Variation
                                                                                                                                      • 4. Biodiversity and Natural Resources
                                                                                                                                        • 4.1 Biodiversity
                                                                                                                                          • 4.1.1 The Variety of Life
                                                                                                                                            • 4.1.2 Measuring Biodiversity Within a Habitat
                                                                                                                                              • 4.1.3 Comparing Biodiversity Between Habitats
                                                                                                                                                • 4.1.4 Ecological Niches & Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                  • 4.1.5 Natural Selection
                                                                                                                                                    • 4.1.6 Hardy-Weinberg Equation
                                                                                                                                                      • 4.1.7 Reproductive Isolation
                                                                                                                                                        • 4.1.8 Classification
                                                                                                                                                          • 4.1.9 Conservation of Biodiversity
                                                                                                                                                          • 4.2 Resources from Plants
                                                                                                                                                            • 4.2.1 Plant Cell Structure
                                                                                                                                                              • 4.2.2 Plant Stems
                                                                                                                                                                • 4.2.3 Importance of Water & Inorganic Ions to Plants
                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.2.4 Starch & Cellulose: Structure & Function
                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.2.5 Plant Fibres
                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.2.6 Practical: Identifying Tissue Types Within Stems
                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.2.7 Practical: Determining the Tensile Strength of Plant Fibres
                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.2.8 Development of Drug Testing
                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.2.9 Antimicrobial Properties of Plants
                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.2.10 Sustainability & Plant Materials
                                                                                                                                                                            • 5. On the Wild Side
                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.1 Ecosystems & Energy Transfer
                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.1.1 Ecosystems: Key Terms
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.1.2 Biotic & Abiotic Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.1.3 Niches: Distribution & Abundance
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.1.4 Practical: Determining Distribution & Abundance
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.1.5 Stages of Succession
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.1.6 Net Primary Productivity
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.1.7 Calculating the Efficiency of Biomass & Energy Transfers
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.2 Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.2.1 Photosynthesis: An Overview
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.2.2 ATP as a Supply of Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.2.3 Chloroplasts: Structure & Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.2.4 Light-dependent Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.2.5 Light-independent Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.2.6 Products of Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.2.7 Practical: The Hill Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.3 Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.3.1 Introduction to Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.3.2 Evidence for the Causes of Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.3.3 The Greenhouse Effect
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.3.4 Models of Future Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.3.5 The Effects of Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.3.6 Temperature & Enzyme Activity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.3.7 Practical: Temperature & Development of Organisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.3.8 Climate Change & the Scientific Community
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.3.9 Carbon Cycle & Reduction of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.3.10 Reducing Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.4 Evolution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.4.1 Evolution by Natural Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.4.2 Speciation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.4.3 Evidence of Evolution & the Scientific Community
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6. Immunity, Infection and Forensics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.1 Forensics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.1.1 Determining the Time of Death
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.1.2 Micro-organisms: Decomposition & Nutrient Recycling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.1.3 DNA Profiling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.2 Microorganisms & Immunity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.2.1 Structure of Bacteria & Viruses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.2.2 Entry Routes of Pathogens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.2.3 Non-specific Immune Responses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.2.4 Antigens & Antibodies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.2.5 T Cell Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.2.6 B Cell Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.2.7 Post-transcriptional Modification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.2.8 Types of Immunity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.2.9 Evolutionary Race Between Pathogens & Host
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.2.10 Types of Antibiotics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.2.11 Limiting Antibiotic Resistance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7. Run for your Life
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.1 Muscles & Movement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.1.1 Movement of the Skeleton
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.1.2 Muscle Fibres
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.1.3 Muscle Contraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.2 Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.2.1 Respiration: An Overview
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.2.2 Stages of Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.2.3 Glycolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.2.4 Link Reaction & Krebs Cycle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.2.5 Oxidative Phosphorylation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.2.6 Practical: Investigating the Rate of Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.2.7 Anaerobic Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.3 Homeostasis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.3.1 Homeostasis: An Overview
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.3.2 Electrical Activity in the Heart
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.3.3 ECGs & Diagnosing CVD
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.3.4 Calculating Cardiac Output
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.4 Exercise
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.4.1 Variations in Breathing Rate & Heart Rate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.4.2 Practical: Investigating the Effects of Exercise
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.4.3 Intensity of Exercise
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.4.4 Modern Medicine & Participation in Sports
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8. Grey Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.1 Response to the Environment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.1.1 Co-ordination of Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.1.2 Neurones: Structure & Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.1.3 Nervous System: Response to a Stimulus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.1.4 Transmission of Nerve Impulses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.1.5 Synapses: Structure & Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.1.6 Detection of Light
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.1.7 The Effects of IAA
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.1.8 Phytochrome
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.2 The Brain, Behaviour & Disease
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.2.1 Brain: Structure & Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.2.2 Studying the Brain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.2.3 Development of the Visual Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.2.4 The Role of Animal Models in Research
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.2.5 Habituation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.2.6 Imbalances in Brain Chemicals Leading to Diseases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2.7 Action of Drugs on Synapses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.2.8 Personalised Medicine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.2.9 Producing Drugs Using GMOs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.2.10 Nature vs Nurture in Brain Development


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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Author: Marlene

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Marlene graduated from Stellenbosch University, South Africa, in 2002 with a degree in Biodiversity and Ecology. After completing a PGCE (Postgraduate certificate in education) in 2003 she taught high school Biology for over 10 years at various schools across South Africa before returning to Stellenbosch University in 2014 to obtain an Honours degree in Biological Sciences. With over 16 years of teaching experience, of which the past 3 years were spent teaching IGCSE and A level Biology, Marlene is passionate about Biology and making it more approachable to her students.


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