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Edexcel A (SNAB) A Level Biology

Revision Notes

Home / A Level / Biology / Edexcel A (SNAB) / Revision Notes / 2. Genes and Health / 2.3 Proteins / 2.3.1 Transcription


2.3.1 Transcription


Transcription

  • A gene is a sequence of nucleotide bases in a DNA molecule that codes for the production of a specific sequence of amino acids, that in turn make up a specific polypeptide (protein)
  • This process of protein synthesis occurs in two stages:
    • Transcription – DNA is transcribed and an mRNA (messenger RNA) molecule is produced
    • Translation – mRNA is translated and an amino acid sequence is produced
      • mRNA is a single-stranded molecule made up of many RNA nucleotides joined together
      • The role of mRNA is to carry the information encoded in the DNA from the nucleus to the site of translation on ribosomes
      • RNA is similar to DNA except for the following
        • RNA contains a ribose sugar while DNA contains deoxyribose
        • RNA is usually single-stranded while DNA is double-stranded
        • RNA contains the base uracil instead of the DNA base thymine

Transcription

  • This stage of protein synthesis occurs in the nucleus of the cell
  • Part of a DNA molecule unwinds and the hydrogen bonds between the complementary base pairs break
  • This exposes the gene to be transcribed (the gene from which a particular polypeptide will be produced)
  • A complimentary copy of the code from the gene is made by building a single-stranded nucleic acid molecule known as mRNA 
    • This reaction is catalysed by RNA polymerase
  • Free activated RNA nucleotides pair up, via hydrogen bonds, with their complementary bases on the exposed strand of the ‘unzipped’ DNA molecule
  • The sugar-phosphate groups of these RNA nucleotides are then bonded together in a reaction catalysed by the enzyme RNA polymerase to form the sugar-phosphate backbone of the mRNA molecule
  • When the gene has been transcribed and the mRNA molecule is complete, the hydrogen bonds between the mRNA and DNA strands break and the double-stranded DNA molecule reforms
  • The mRNA molecule then leaves the nucleus via a pore in the nuclear envelope

Transcription in the nucleus

The transcription stage of protein synthesis - DNA is transcribed and an mRNA molecule is produced

Anti-sense and sense strands

  • In the transcription stage of protein synthesis, free RNA nucleotides pair up with the exposed bases on the DNA molecule
  • RNA nucleotides only pair with the bases on one strand of the DNA molecule
    • This strand of the DNA molecule is known as the antisense or template strand (or the transcribed strand) and it is used to produce the mRNA molecule
    • The other strand is known as the sense or coding strand (or the non-template or non-transcribed strand)
  • RNA polymerase moves along the template strand in the 3' to 5' direction
    • This means that the mRNA molecule grows in the 5' to 3' direction
  • Because the mRNA is formed by complementary pairing with the DNA template strand, the mRNA molecule contains the exact same sequence of nucleotides as the DNA coding strand (although the mRNA will contain uracil instead of thymine)

Process of Transcription

The antisense strand of DNA is the one that is transcribed into mRNA

Exam Tip

Be careful – DNA polymerase is the enzyme involved in DNA replication; RNA polymerase is the enzyme involved in transcription – don’t get these confused.

Note the use of sense and anti-sense strands in transcription can be replaced with non-transcribed and transcribed/template strands respectively.

The mRNA strand will have the same base sequence as the sense strand except on RNA the base Uracil replaces Thymine from the DNA strand.



  • 1. Lifestyle, Health and Risk
    • 1.1 The Circulatory System
      • 1.1.1 The Need for a Circulatory System
        • 1.1.2 The Importance of Water in Transport
          • 1.1.3 Mammalian Heart: Structure & Function
            • 1.1.4 Blood Vessels: Structure & Function
              • 1.1.5 Cardiac Cycle
                • 1.1.6 Investigating Heart Rate
                  • 1.1.7 Atherosclerosis
                    • 1.1.8 Blood Clotting
                    • 1.2 Diet & Health
                      • 1.2.1 Cardiovascular Disease
                        • 1.2.2 Interpreting Data on Risk Factors
                          • 1.2.3 Treatment of CVD
                            • 1.2.4 Energy Budgets & Diet
                              • 1.2.5 Monosaccharides
                                • 1.2.6 The Glycosidic Bond
                                  • 1.2.7 Disaccharides
                                    • 1.2.8 Polysaccharides
                                      • 1.2.9 Lipids & Ester Bonds
                                        • 1.2.10 Reducing Risk Factors of CVD
                                          • 1.2.11 Practical: Vitamin C Content
                                        • 2. Genes and Health
                                          • 2.1 Gas Exchange, Cell Membranes & Transport
                                            • 2.1.1 Properties of Gas Exchange Surfaces
                                              • 2.1.2 Fick's Law of Diffusion
                                                • 2.1.3 The Mammalian Lung
                                                  • 2.1.4 Cell Membranes
                                                    • 2.1.5 Practical: Investigating Membrane Structure & Permeability
                                                      • 2.1.6 Diffusion & Facilitated Diffusion
                                                        • 2.1.7 Active Transport
                                                          • 2.1.8 Osmosis
                                                          • 2.2 Nucleic Acids
                                                            • 2.2.1 Nucleotides & Phosphodiester Bonds
                                                              • 2.2.2 DNA: Structure
                                                                • 2.2.3 RNA: Structure
                                                                • 2.3 Proteins
                                                                  • 2.3.1 Transcription
                                                                    • 2.3.2 Translation
                                                                      • 2.3.3 Nature of the Genetic Code
                                                                        • 2.3.4 Amino Acids & Peptide Bonds
                                                                          • 2.3.5 Levels of Protein Structure
                                                                            • 2.3.6 Globular Proteins: Structure & Function
                                                                              • 2.3.7 Fibrous Proteins: Structure & Function
                                                                                • 2.3.8 The Role of Enzymes
                                                                                  • 2.3.9 Mode of Enzyme Action
                                                                                    • 2.3.10 Practical: Investigating the Effect Enzyme and Substrate Concentrations
                                                                                    • 2.4 Inheritance
                                                                                      • 2.4.1 DNA Replication
                                                                                        • 2.4.2 Mutations
                                                                                          • 2.4.3 Inheritance: Key Terms
                                                                                            • 2.4.4 Pedigree Diagrams
                                                                                              • 2.4.5 Monohybrid Crosses
                                                                                                • 2.4.6 Chi-squared Test
                                                                                                  • 2.4.7 Genetic Screening
                                                                                                • 3. Voice of the Genome
                                                                                                  • 3.1 Cell Structure & Organisation
                                                                                                    • 3.1.1 Cell Theory
                                                                                                      • 3.1.2 Eukaryotic Cells
                                                                                                        • 3.1.3 Prokaryotic Cells
                                                                                                          • 3.1.4 Organisation of Cells
                                                                                                            • 3.1.5 Microscopy
                                                                                                              • 3.1.6 Magnification Calculations
                                                                                                                • 3.1.7 Recognising Organelles
                                                                                                                • 3.2 Cell Division
                                                                                                                  • 3.2.1 The Cell Cycle
                                                                                                                    • 3.2.2 Mitosis
                                                                                                                      • 3.2.3 Practical: Identifying Mitosis in Plant Cells
                                                                                                                      • 3.3 Reproduction & Inheritance
                                                                                                                        • 3.3.1 Mammalian Gametes
                                                                                                                          • 3.3.2 Fertilisation in Mammals
                                                                                                                            • 3.3.3 Genes & Linkage
                                                                                                                              • 3.3.4 Meiosis: Source of Genetic Variation
                                                                                                                              • 3.4 Differentiation & Variation
                                                                                                                                • 3.4.1 Stem Cells
                                                                                                                                  • 3.4.2 Stem Cells in Medicine
                                                                                                                                    • 3.4.3 Cell Differentiation
                                                                                                                                      • 3.4.4 Epigenetics
                                                                                                                                        • 3.4.5 Phenotypes & Variation
                                                                                                                                      • 4. Biodiversity and Natural Resources
                                                                                                                                        • 4.1 Biodiversity
                                                                                                                                          • 4.1.1 The Variety of Life
                                                                                                                                            • 4.1.2 Measuring Biodiversity Within a Habitat
                                                                                                                                              • 4.1.3 Comparing Biodiversity Between Habitats
                                                                                                                                                • 4.1.4 Ecological Niches & Adaptations
                                                                                                                                                  • 4.1.5 Natural Selection
                                                                                                                                                    • 4.1.6 Hardy-Weinberg Equation
                                                                                                                                                      • 4.1.7 Reproductive Isolation
                                                                                                                                                        • 4.1.8 Classification
                                                                                                                                                          • 4.1.9 Conservation of Biodiversity
                                                                                                                                                          • 4.2 Resources from Plants
                                                                                                                                                            • 4.2.1 Plant Cell Structure
                                                                                                                                                              • 4.2.2 Plant Stems
                                                                                                                                                                • 4.2.3 Importance of Water & Inorganic Ions to Plants
                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.2.4 Starch & Cellulose: Structure & Function
                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.2.5 Plant Fibres
                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.2.6 Practical: Identifying Tissue Types Within Stems
                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.2.7 Practical: Determining the Tensile Strength of Plant Fibres
                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.2.8 Development of Drug Testing
                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.2.9 Antimicrobial Properties of Plants
                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.2.10 Sustainability & Plant Materials
                                                                                                                                                                            • 5. On the Wild Side
                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.1 Ecosystems & Energy Transfer
                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.1.1 Ecosystems: Key Terms
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.1.2 Biotic & Abiotic Factors
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.1.3 Niches: Distribution & Abundance
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.1.4 Practical: Determining Distribution & Abundance
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.1.5 Stages of Succession
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.1.6 Net Primary Productivity
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.1.7 Calculating the Efficiency of Biomass & Energy Transfers
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.2 Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.2.1 Photosynthesis: An Overview
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.2.2 ATP as a Supply of Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.2.3 Chloroplasts: Structure & Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.2.4 Light-dependent Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.2.5 Light-independent Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.2.6 Products of Photosynthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.2.7 Practical: The Hill Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.3 Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.3.1 Introduction to Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.3.2 Evidence for the Causes of Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.3.3 The Greenhouse Effect
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.3.4 Models of Future Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.3.5 The Effects of Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.3.6 Temperature & Enzyme Activity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.3.7 Practical: Temperature & Development of Organisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.3.8 Climate Change & the Scientific Community
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.3.9 Carbon Cycle & Reduction of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.3.10 Reducing Climate Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.4 Evolution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.4.1 Evolution by Natural Selection
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.4.2 Speciation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.4.3 Evidence of Evolution & the Scientific Community
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6. Immunity, Infection and Forensics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.1 Forensics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.1.1 Determining the Time of Death
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.1.2 Micro-organisms: Decomposition & Nutrient Recycling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.1.3 DNA Profiling
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.2 Microorganisms & Immunity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.2.1 Structure of Bacteria & Viruses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.2.2 Entry Routes of Pathogens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.2.3 Non-specific Immune Responses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.2.4 Antigens & Antibodies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.2.5 T Cell Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.2.6 B Cell Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.2.7 Post-transcriptional Modification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.2.8 Types of Immunity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.2.9 Evolutionary Race Between Pathogens & Host
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.2.10 Types of Antibiotics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.2.11 Limiting Antibiotic Resistance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7. Run for your Life
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.1 Muscles & Movement
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.1.1 Movement of the Skeleton
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.1.2 Muscle Fibres
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.1.3 Muscle Contraction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.2 Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.2.1 Respiration: An Overview
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.2.2 Stages of Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.2.3 Glycolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.2.4 Link Reaction & Krebs Cycle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.2.5 Oxidative Phosphorylation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.2.6 Practical: Investigating the Rate of Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.2.7 Anaerobic Respiration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.3 Homeostasis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.3.1 Homeostasis: An Overview
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.3.2 Electrical Activity in the Heart
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.3.3 ECGs & Diagnosing CVD
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.3.4 Calculating Cardiac Output
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.4 Exercise
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.4.1 Variations in Breathing Rate & Heart Rate
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.4.2 Practical: Investigating the Effects of Exercise
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.4.3 Intensity of Exercise
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.4.4 Modern Medicine & Participation in Sports
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8. Grey Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.1 Response to the Environment
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.1.1 Co-ordination of Response
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.1.2 Neurones: Structure & Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.1.3 Nervous System: Response to a Stimulus
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.1.4 Transmission of Nerve Impulses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.1.5 Synapses: Structure & Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.1.6 Detection of Light
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.1.7 The Effects of IAA
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.1.8 Phytochrome
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.2 The Brain, Behaviour & Disease
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.2.1 Brain: Structure & Function
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.2.2 Studying the Brain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.2.3 Development of the Visual Cortex
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.2.4 The Role of Animal Models in Research
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.2.5 Habituation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.2.6 Imbalances in Brain Chemicals Leading to Diseases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2.7 Action of Drugs on Synapses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.2.8 Personalised Medicine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.2.9 Producing Drugs Using GMOs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.2.10 Nature vs Nurture in Brain Development


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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Author: Cara

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Cara graduated from the University of Exeter in 2005 with a degree in Biological Sciences. She has fifteen years of experience teaching the Sciences at KS3 to KS5, and Psychology at A-Level. Cara has taught in a range of secondary schools across the South West of England before joining the team at SME. Cara is passionate about Biology and creating resources that bring the subject alive and deepen students' understanding


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