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Edexcel International A Level Chemistry

Revision Notes

Home / International A Level / Chemistry / Edexcel / Revision Notes / 4: Rates, Equilibria & Further Organic Chemistry / 4.2 Entropy / 4.2.1 Entropy - Introduction


4.2.1 Entropy - Introduction


Entropy - Introduction

  • You may have wondered why it is that endothermic reactions occur at all, after all, what can be the driving force behind endothermic reactions if the products end up in a less stable, higher energy state?
  • Although the majority of chemical reactions we experience everyday are exothermic,  ΔHꝋ alone is not enough to explain why endothermic reactions occur

Reaction Kinetics Endothermic Reaction Activation Energy, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

The driving force behind chemical reactions cannot be explained by enthalpy changes alone as it makes not sense for chemical to end up in a less stable higher energy state in endothermic reactions

  • The answer is entropy

Chaos in the universe

  • The entropy (S) of a given system is the number of possible arrangements of the particles and their energy in a given system
    • In other words, it is a measure of how disordered or chaotic a system is

  • When a system becomes more disordered, its entropy will increase
  • An increase in entropy means that the system becomes energetically more stable

  • An example of a system that becomes more disordered is when a solid is melted
  • For example, melting ice to form liquid water:

H2O (s) → H2O (l)

  • The water molecules in ice are in fixed positions and can only vibrate about those positions
  • In the liquid state, the particles are still quite close together but are arranged more randomly, in that they can move around each other
  • Water molecules in the liquid state are therefore more disordered
  • Thus, for a given substance, the entropy increases when its solid form melts into a liquid
  • In both examples, the system with the higher entropy will be energetically favourable (as the energy of the system is more spread out when it is in a disordered state)

Entropy change, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

Melting a solid will cause the particles to become more disordered resulting in a higher entropy state

Distribution of Molecules

  • Consider two gas jars, separated by a cover slip and one of the gas jars containing five molecules of orange bromine gas
  • When the cover slip between two gas jars is removed, molecules of gas will spread out evenly throughout both of the gas jars 

dc87d202-9a39-4059-8882-9632afbda1e4The first two gas jars are separated by a glass cover slip, the second two gas jars are not separated allowing molecules to spread evenly between the two 

  • Each molecule can either be in the left or the right hand gas jar, so therefore has two possible arrangements 
  • So the number of possible arrangements is 2
  • If there are 5 molecules in one jar to begin with, the total number of ways, W, the five molecules can be arranged is
    • W = W1 x W2 x W3 x W4 x W5
    • W = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2
    • W = 25
    • W = 32
  • If we increased the number of molecules to 100, W becomes 2100

  • Therefore as the number of particles increases the number of possible arrangements increases rapidly 
  • Entropy (S) is linked to W by the equation 

S = k InW

    • k = Boltzmann distribution constant 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1 mol-1
    • The units for entropy (S) are J K-1 mol-1

Distribution of energy

  • The spreading out of molecules in diffusion is an increase in entropy as the molecules are becoming more randomly dispersed
  • Spreading out heat energy also represents an increase in entropy
  • Energy exists in ‘packets’ called quanta
    • Only whole numbers of quanta are possible
  • The more quanta, the more ways of arrange the particles
  • The more particles the more ways of sharing quanta 

0c41d6d7-2b30-4e0f-a5fb-134faf3b1f84

Flow chart to show the effect of increasing temperature on entropy 



  • 1. Structure, Bonding & Introduction to Organic Chemistry
    • 1.1 Formulae & Equations
      • 1.1.1 Formulae & Mass
        • 1.1.2 Avogadro & the Mole
          • 1.1.3 Full & Ionic Equations
            • 1.1.4 Calculating Formulae
            • 1.2 Amount of Substance
              • 1.2.1 Concentration Calculations
                • 1.2.2 Reacting Mass Calculations
                  • 1.2.3 Reacting Volume Calculations
                    • 1.2.4 Calculations of Product
                    • 1.3 Atomic Structure
                      • 1.3.1 Sub-Atomic Particles
                        • 1.3.2 Isotopes & Mass Spectra
                        • 1.4 Electrons & Ions
                          • 1.4.1 Endothermic Ionisation Energy
                            • 1.4.2 Electronic Structures
                              • 1.4.3 Shapes of Orbitals
                                • 1.4.4 Electronic Configurations & Chemical Properties
                                • 1.5 The Periodic Table
                                  • 1.5.1 Periodicity - Ionisation Energy
                                    • 1.5.2 Periodicity - Thermal Trends
                                    • 1.6 Ionic & Metallic Bonding & Structure
                                      • 1.6.1 Evidence of Ions
                                        • 1.6.2 Ionic Bonding & Structures
                                          • 1.6.3 Ionic Bond Strength
                                            • 1.6.4 Polarisation
                                              • 1.6.5 Metallic Bonding & Lattices
                                              • 1.7 Covalent Bonding & Structure
                                                • 1.7.1 Evidence of Covalent Bonding
                                                  • 1.7.2 Covalent Bonding
                                                    • 1.7.3 Carbon Allotropes
                                                      • 1.7.4 Electronegativity
                                                        • 1.7.5 VSEPR Theory
                                                          • 1.7.6 Predicting Shapes & Angles
                                                          • 1.8 Introductory Organic Chemistry
                                                            • 1.8.1 Hazards & Risks
                                                              • 1.8.2 Functional Groups & Homologous Series
                                                                • 1.8.3 Nomenclature & Classification
                                                                  • 1.8.4 Isomers - Structural
                                                                  • 1.9 Alkanes
                                                                    • 1.9.1 Alkanes - Introduction
                                                                      • 1.9.2 Alkanes as Fuels
                                                                        • 1.9.3 Combustion of Alkanes
                                                                          • 1.9.4 Alternative Fuels
                                                                            • 1.9.5 Free Radicals & Fission
                                                                              • 1.9.6 The Free Radical Substitution Mechanism
                                                                              • 1.10 Alkenes
                                                                                • 1.10.1 Alkenes - Introduction
                                                                                  • 1.10.2 Isomers - Geometric
                                                                                    • 1.10.3 Reactions of Alkenes
                                                                                      • 1.10.4 Saturation Test
                                                                                        • 1.10.5 Electrophilic Addition - Mechanism
                                                                                          • 1.10.6 Addition Polymerisation
                                                                                            • 1.10.7 Polymer Disposal
                                                                                          • 2: Energetics, Group Chemistry, Halogenoalkanes & Alcohols
                                                                                            • 2.1 Energetics
                                                                                              • 2.1.1 Enthalpy Level Diagrams
                                                                                                • 2.1.2 Enthalpy Change - Definitions
                                                                                                  • 2.1.3 Using Calorimetry
                                                                                                    • 2.1.4 Using Hess Cycles
                                                                                                      • 2.1.5 Bond Enthalpies
                                                                                                      • 2.2 Intermolecular Forces
                                                                                                        • 2.2.1 Intermolecular Forces - Introduction
                                                                                                          • 2.2.2 Hydrogen Bonding
                                                                                                            • 2.2.3 Physical Properties
                                                                                                              • 2.2.4 Solvent Choice
                                                                                                              • 2.3 Redox Chemistry & Acid-Base Titrations
                                                                                                                • 2.3.1 Oxidation Numbers - Introduction
                                                                                                                  • 2.3.2 Oxidation & Reduction
                                                                                                                    • 2.3.3 Disproportionation Reactions
                                                                                                                      • 2.3.4 Ionic Equations
                                                                                                                        • 2.3.5 Acid-Base Titrations with Indicators
                                                                                                                        • 2.4 Groups 1 & 2
                                                                                                                          • 2.4.1 Ionisation Energy - Groups 1 & 2
                                                                                                                            • 2.4.2 Reactivity - Groups 1 & 2
                                                                                                                              • 2.4.3 Oxides & Hydroxides
                                                                                                                                • 2.4.4 Group 2 Hydroxides & Sulfates
                                                                                                                                  • 2.4.5 Nitrates & Carbonates
                                                                                                                                    • 2.4.6 Flame Tests
                                                                                                                                      • 2.4.7 Qualitative Tests
                                                                                                                                      • 2.5 Group 7
                                                                                                                                        • 2.5.1 Trends of the Group 7 Elements
                                                                                                                                          • 2.5.2 Halogen Displacement Reactions
                                                                                                                                            • 2.5.3 Redox Reactions of the Halogens
                                                                                                                                              • 2.5.4 Other Reactions of the Halogens
                                                                                                                                              • 2.6 Introduction to Kinetics & Equilibria
                                                                                                                                                • 2.6.1 Collision Theory
                                                                                                                                                  • 2.6.2 Rates of Reaction
                                                                                                                                                    • 2.6.3 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distributions
                                                                                                                                                      • 2.6.4 Catalysts & Energy
                                                                                                                                                        • 2.6.5 Dynamic Equilibrium in Reversible Reactions
                                                                                                                                                          • 2.6.6 Le Chatelier's Principle
                                                                                                                                                            • 2.6.7 Industrial Compromises
                                                                                                                                                            • 2.7 Organic Chemistry - Introduction
                                                                                                                                                              • 2.7.1 Types of Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                • 2.7.2 Reaction Mechanisms - Introduction
                                                                                                                                                                • 2.8 Organic Chemistry: Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                  • 2.8.1 Halogenoalkanes - Introduction
                                                                                                                                                                    • 2.8.2 Reactions of Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                      • 2.8.3 The Nucleophilic Substitution Mechanism
                                                                                                                                                                        • 2.8.4 Hydrolysis of Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                          • 2.8.5 Trends in Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                          • 2.9 Organic Chemistry: Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                            • 2.9.1 Alcohols - Introduction
                                                                                                                                                                              • 2.9.2 Reactions of Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                                • 2.9.3 Oxidation of Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                                • 2.10 Organic Chemistry: Techniques & Spectra
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 2.10.1 Organic Chemistry Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 2.10.2 Interpreting Mass Spectra
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 2.10.3 Using Infrared Spectrometry
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 3. Practical Skills in Chemistry I
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 3.1 Physical Chemistry Core Practicals
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 3.1.1 Molar Volume of a Gas
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 3.1.2 Determining Enthalpy Change of Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 3.1.3 Determining Concentrations
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 3.1.4 Standard Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 3.2 Inorganic & Organic Chemistry Core Practicals
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 3.2.1 Hydrolysis of Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 3.2.2 Chlorination of 2-Methylpropan-2-ol
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 3.2.3 Propan-1-ol Oxidation
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 3.2.4 AS Qualitative Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4: Rates, Equilibria & Further Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.1 Kinetics
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.1.1 Kinetic Rates
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.1.2 Rate Equations & Orders
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.1.3 Reaction Orders - Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.1.4 Obtaining Rate Data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.1.5 Initial-Rate Method
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.1.6 Continuous Monitoring Method
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.1.7 Rate-Determining Steps from Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.1.8 Reaction Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.1.9 Acid-Catalysed Iodination of Propanone
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.1.10 Activation Energy & Arrhenius
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.2 Entropy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.2.1 Entropy - Introduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.2.2 Entropy Changes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.2.3 Total Entropy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.2.4 Reaction Feasibility
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.3 Energetics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.3.1 Born-Haber Cycles - Key Terms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.3.2 Born-Haber Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.3.3 Polarisation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.3.4 Enthalpy of Solution - Key Terms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.3.5 Enthalpy of Solution - Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.3.6 Enthalpy of Solution - Ionic Charge & Radius
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.4 Chemical Equilibria
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.4.1 Equilibrium Constant, Kc
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.4.2 Equilibrium Constant, Kp
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.4.3 Equilibrium Constant & Conditions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.4.4 Equilibrium Constant & Temperature
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.4.5 Equilibrium Constant & Entropy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.5 Acid-base Equilibria
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.5.1 Brønsted–Lowry Acid & Base Theory
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.5.2 pH
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.5.3 Acid Strength
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.5.4 pH Calculations of Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.5.5. Ionic Product of Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.5.6 Analysing pH Data
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.5.7 Titration Curves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.5.8 Buffers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.5.9 Buffer Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.6 Organic Chemistry: Chirality
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.6.1 Chirality in Optical Isomers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.6.2 Racemates & Optical Activity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.6.3 Mechanisms & Optical Activity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.7 Organic Chemistry: Carbonyls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.7.1 Carbonyls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.7.2 Reactions of Carbonyls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.8 Organic Chemistry: Carboxylic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.8.1 Carboxylic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.8.2 Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.8.3 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.8.4 Acyl Chlorides & Esters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.8.5 Acid & Alkaline Hydrolysis of Esters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.8.6 Forming Polyesters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.9 Organic Analytical Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.9.1 High Resolution Mass Spectrometry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.9.2 Carbon-13 NMR Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.9.3 Low Resolution Proton NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.9.4 High Resolution Proton NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.9.5 Chromatography - TLC
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.9.6 Chromatography - HPLC & GC
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5. Transition Metals & Organic Nitrogen Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.1 Redox Equilibria
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.1.1 Reduction & Oxidation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.1.2 Standard Electrode Potential
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.1.3 Standard Electrode Potential
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.1.4 Conventional Cell Representation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.1.5 Thermodynamics & Electrode Potential
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.1.6 Fuel Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.1.7 Redox Titration Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.2 Transition Metals & Complexes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.2.1 Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.2.2 Transition Metal Complexes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.2.3 Colour in Aqueous ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.2.4 Ligands
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.2.5 Ligand Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.2.6 Octahedral & Tetrahedral Complexes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.2.7 Square Planar Complexes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.2.8 Haemoglobin & Ligand Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.3 Transition Metal Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.3.1 Vanadium Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.3.2 Chromium Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.3.3 Ions in Aqueous Solution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.3.4 Catalysts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.3.5 Homogeneous Catalysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.3.6 Autocatalysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.4 Organic Chemistry: Arenes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.4.1 Benzene - Structure & Stability
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.4.2 Benzene Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.4.3 Benzene - Electrophilic Substitution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.4.4 Phenol Bromination
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.5 Organic Chemistry: Nitrogen Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.5.1 Amines, Amides & Amino Acids - Introduction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.5.2 Primary Aliphatic Amines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.5.3 Aromatic Amines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.5.4 Amides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.5.5 Polymerisation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.5.6 Polyamides & Poly(ethenol)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.5.7 Characteristic Behaviour of Amino Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.6 Organic Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.6.1 Deducing Organic Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.6.2 Planning Reaction Schemes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.6.3 Increasing the Carbon Chain Length
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.6.4 Organic Techniques - Preparation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.6.5 Organic Techniques - Purification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.6.6 Organic Techniques - Purity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6. Practical Skills in Chemistry II
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.1 Advanced Physical Chemistry Core Practicals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.1.1 Rates of Reaction - Titrimetric Method
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.1.2 Rates of Reaction - Clock Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.1.3 Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.1.4 Finding Ka Values
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.1.5 Electrochemical Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.2 Advanced Inorganic & Organic Chemistry Core Practicals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.2.1 Redox Titration - Iron(II) & Manganate(VII)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.2.2 Redox Titration -Thiosulfate & Iodine
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.2.3 Transition Metal Complexes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.2.4 A-Level Qualitative Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.2.5 Aspirin Preparation


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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Author: Gomathi



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