The Atmosphere as a Dynamic System (SL IB Environmental Systems & Societies (ESS))

• The atmosphere is primarily composed of nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%)
• • These two gases make up the majority of the atmosphere and play vital roles in supporting life on Earth

• In addition to nitrogen and oxygen, the atmosphere contains smaller amounts of other gases, including carbon dioxide, argon, water vapour, and various trace gases
  • Carbon dioxide, although present in relatively low concentrations (around 0.04%), is essential for maintaining the greenhouse effect, which helps regulate the Earth's temperature, and is essential for photosynthesis
  • Argon is an inert gas that does not participate in chemical reactions but contributes to the overall composition of the atmosphere
  • Water vapour is a variable component that plays a crucial role in the Earth's weather patterns, the formation of clouds and precipitation, and photosynthesis
  • Trace gases, such as methane, ozone, and nitrous oxide, are present in even smaller quantities but can have significant impacts on climate and atmospheric chemistry

The gaseous composition of the Earth's atmosphere

Atmospheric Layers

• The atmosphere is stratified into different layers based on temperature changes
  • The inner layers of the atmosphere, where most interactions related to living systems occur, are the troposphere and the stratosphere

• The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere, extending from the Earth's surface up to about 10 kilometres
  • It is where weather phenomena, such as cloud formation, precipitation, and the mixing of gases, primarily occur
  • The troposphere contains the highest concentration of water vapour, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases that are important for the functioning of living systems and the regulation of climate

• Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which extends from approximately 10 kilometres to 50 kilometres above the Earth's surface
  • The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, a region with a higher concentration of ozone molecules that absorb and block most of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation
  • This layer is crucial for protecting life on Earth from excessive UV radiation and has important implications for the health of ecosystems

• The reactions occurring in the inner layers of the atmosphere, particularly the troposphere and the stratosphere, are crucial for maintaining the balance of gases, regulating climate patterns, and supporting life
  • Within the troposphere, chemical reactions involving pollutants, greenhouse gases, and atmospheric particles can impact air quality and climate
  • In the stratosphere, chemical reactions involving ozone play a vital role in maintaining the ozone layer and protecting the Earth from harmful UV radiation

Approximate atmospheric temperatures and pressures up to an altitude of about 120 km - note the warmer temperatures in the troposphere, below the zone of maximum ozone concentration (in the stratosphere)

Atmospheric Systems

• The atmosphere is a dynamic system that plays a crucial role in the Earth's climate and weather patterns
  • As with other systems, the atmospheric system is made up of storages, flows, inputs and outputs

• Storages:
  • The atmosphere acts as a storage for gases, including greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane, which contribute to the greenhouse effect and influence the Earth's temperature
  • These gases are present in different concentrations and can vary over time due to natural and human activities
• Flows:
  • Within the atmosphere, there are constant flows of gases and particles, driven by processes such as air currents, weather patterns, and atmospheric circulation
  • These flows contribute to the movement and redistribution of gases and other substances within the atmosphere

• Inputs:
  • The atmosphere receives inputs from various sources
  • Natural inputs include gases emitted from volcanic eruptions, gaseous emissions from plants and other living organisms, and dust particles from desert regions
  • Anthropogenic inputs, resulting from human activities, include the release of greenhouse gases, air pollutants from industrial processes, and aerosols from combustion and other human-made sources

Photo by Michal Pech on Unsplash 

Human activities such as emissions from industrial chimneys create inputs into atmospheric systems

• Outputs:
  • The atmosphere also has outputs through different processes
  • It releases gases through natural processes like respiration and photosynthesis
  • Additionally, pollutants and aerosols can be removed from the atmosphere through precipitation, dry deposition, and chemical reactions

• Exchanges and interactions with other Earth systems:
  • The atmosphere interacts with other components of the Earth system, including the biosphere (plants, animals, and microorganisms), hydrosphere (oceans, lakes, and rivers), and lithosphere (landmasses and rocks)
  • It exchanges gases and particles with these systems through various mechanisms - for example, the exchange of carbon dioxide occurs through photosynthesis by plants and respiration by organisms
  • These interactions involve the exchange of gases, energy, and particles, shaping climate patterns, weather events, and overall Earth system dynamics

Changes through Geological Time

• The composition of the atmosphere has changed significantly over geological time
  • For example, during the early stages of Earth's history, the atmosphere had high levels of carbon dioxide and lacked oxygen
  • Over millions of years, photosynthetic organisms evolved and began to release oxygen as a byproduct, leading to the oxygenation of the atmosphere
  • Additionally, geological processes such as volcanic activity and meteorite impacts have influenced the atmospheric composition throughout Earth's history

Photo by Jason Blackeye on Unsplash 

Clouds form when warm, moist air rises and cools, causing water vapour to condense into tiny water droplets or ice crystals

• The majority of clouds form in the troposphere
• This layer is characterised by decreasing temperature with increasing altitude, creating conditions favourable for the cooling and condensation of water vapour

Albedo Effect of Clouds

• Clouds play a crucial role in the planet's albedo effect
  • Albedo refers to the reflectivity of a surface, indicating how much solar radiation is reflected back into space
  • Clouds have a high albedo, reflecting a significant portion of incoming sunlight back into space
  • This reflection of solar radiation helps cool the Earth's surface and lower the amount of energy absorbed by the planet, offsetting some of the warming effects caused by the greenhouse gases
  • In this way, the albedo effect from clouds contributes to the regulation of global average temperature

• Clouds also act as a feedback mechanism in the climate system
  • In addition, low clouds have a net cooling effect by reflecting more sunlight, while high clouds can have a net warming effect by trapping more outgoing infrared radiation
  • The balance between different cloud types and their altitude can influence the overall albedo effect and temperature regulation

• Changes in cloud cover and properties can lead to variations in the albedo effect and impact global average temperature
  • Factors such as aerosol pollution, changes in atmospheric circulation patterns, and climate change can influence cloud formation, distribution, and properties, affecting the net radiative forcing and temperature patterns on a regional and global scale