Urban Waste Generation (AQA A Level Geography)

• The World Bank estimates that by 2050 global waste will have increased from 2.01 to 3.4 billion tonnes per year

The world generates 2.01 billion tonnes of municipal solid waste annually, with at least 33 percent of that—extremely conservatively—not managed in an environmentally safe manner. Worldwide, waste generated per person per day averages 0.74 kilogram but ranges widely, from 0.11 to 4.54 kilograms. Though they only account for 16 percent of the world’s population, high-income countries generate about 34 percent, or 683 million tonnes, of the world’s waste. World Bank 2018

• Main types of waste generated are:
  • Food or green waste 44%
  • Paper and cardboard 17%
  • Plastics 12%
  • Glass 5%
  • Metals 4%
• Most waste is generated in the United States at a rate of 811kg of waste per person per annum, and around half of that ends up in landfill
• Colombia produces the least urban waste, at 243kg per person per annum
• Chile is the worst country and recycles only 2kg per person, 417kg of waste per person ends up in landfill 
• The only country not to send waste to landfill is Switzerland and whilst the Swiss produce 706kg of waste per person, 210kg is recycled with 333kg incinerated and the remaining 163kg is compostable waste 
• Turkey has the least environmentally friendly waste management and most is disposed of illegally each year
• In LDEs, over 90% of waste is openly dumped or burned

Sources of Urban Waste

Sector	Source	Examples of Waste
Industry	Light and heavy manufacturing, power and chemical plants, fabrication etc.	Packaging, food, hazardous wastes, e-waste, ashes, specialist waste, housekeeping wastes etc.
Domestic	Single and multifamily housing	Food, paper, cardboard, e-waste, textiles, plastic, garden waste, white goods, household hazardous products (paint, aerosols, cleaning products etc.) glass, metals etc.
Commercial	Offices, restaurants, markets, shops, hotels etc.	Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food, glass, metal, special wastes, hazardous wastes, e-wastes etc.
Construction	New building sites, road repairs, renovation sites, demolition sites etc.	Concrete, steel, , hazardous and specialised waste (asbestos, chemical etc.) wood, dirt, bricks, tiles
Municipal/Urban services	Landscaping, parks, beaches, leisure areas, water and wastewater treatment plants, street cleaning etc.	General public waste, garden waste, tree trimmings, street cleaning etc.
Institutional	Hospitals, government buildings, airports, schools, prisons	Non-medical waste, paper, cardboard, food etc.

• Municipal solid waste (MSW) is classed as domestic waste and municipal refuse is categorised as either hazardous, biological or recyclable waste

• Waste streams are flows of specific waste, from origin through recovery, recycling and final disposal
• There are two types of streams:
  • Material-related streams (including metals; glass; paper and cardboard; plastics; wood; rubber; textiles; bio-waste)
  • Product-related streams that need further or specific treatment (including packaging; electronic waste; batteries; end-of-life vehicles; mining, construction and demolition waste) which eventually feed into materials-related streams
• Waste streams in HDEs are increasingly managed and regulated
• Illegal and environmentally damaging disposal of waste is common in LDEs and EMEs
• Some of the issues include:
  • Leachates contaminating land and waterways
  • Methane produced through decomposition and particulates from burning waste
  • Loss of biodiversity
  • Raised health issues - respiratory, skin and other diseases
  • Loss of recyclable resources such as glass and metal
  • Loss of potential energy from incineration

Factors Affecting Waste Streams

Economic	Consumption of goods increases as people become wealthier HDEs produce more waste than LDEs Waste components vary depending on level of development - LDEs have higher organic waste production (approx. 64%) whereas HDEs have higher paper and plastic waste Waste streams vary between countries, but link to wealth is difficult to identify - HDEs recycle a large % of its waste but this also varies between countries (Japan recycles only 9% compared to Germany which recycles 66% of its waste) Most LDEs do not have formal recycling systems in place, but many people collect waste to recycle, repurpose and re-sell to make a living
Lifestyle	Type and amount of waste varies depending on where people live - higher % of manufactured waste is produced by urbanites, and rural residents produce more organic waste Placement and number of recycling facilities affect waste streams - encouragement by authorities and accessible facilities increases recycling of waste Food and diet affects waste components and streams - processed food creates waste and is over packaged; fresh food produces more compostable waste (banana skins, potato peelings etc.) and can be package free
Attitude	Many people in HDEs have a 'throw-away' culture - clothing worn a few times and thrown away; regular replacement of electronics (smartphone replaced each new release). This generates high levels of complex waste streams, much of which cannot be recycled High levels of food waste due to people throwing out food near to or just past best before or sell -by dates People who have concerns over the environmental impacts of waste are more likely to reuse or recycle their waste Efforts to challenge mass consumerism and decrease waste include foraging for food and freeganism - where people retrieve and use food or items that other people, shops, or organisations have thrown out, so that they are not wasted

• The global waste trade is the international trade of waste between countries (usually to EMEs) for further treatment, disposal, or recycling
• Every year, thousands of shipping containers filled with 'recyclable waste' are exported by HDEs to EMEs
• Toxic or hazardous wastes are often imported by LDEs from HDEs
• This is because it is cheaper to export waste rather than develop local recycling infrastructures and reduces landfills
• LDEs are not heavily regulated, plus they benefit economically from accepting waste from HDEs
• However, many EDEs and LDEs do not have safe recycling or processing facilities, and many workers are exposed to toxic waste through lack of safety equipment
• Also, once waste is exported, it is not tracked and rather than being treated, hazardous waste is often incinerated or dumped illegally
• Most waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) is shipped to Africa and Asia to be processed and recycled 
• Heavy metals and toxins leak into waterways and groundwater, poisoning wildlife and people
• Animals and birds are harmed by swallowing or getting caught in waste plastic 
• Workers, children and scavengers on and around the waste dumps, are exposed to excessive and dangerous health risks

Other issues with the waste trade

• Governments of exporting countries still count exported waste volumes towards their national recycling rates
• Waste exports have increased significantly, and since the turn of the century, shipments of recyclable items from the EU rose by more than 70%
• There is an attitude of 'out of sight, out of mind' by governments and their policy of the 'waste trade flow'
• There are serious environmental impacts such as marine pollution and people are calling for a total ban on waste exports, major improvements to a broken recycling system, along with a significant reduction in single use plastics and packaging

China and waste

• Up until 2017, China was the main destination for global waste, importing 70% of the world’s plastic waste
• By 2018, China had imposed a ban on most plastics and set limits on recyclable materials under their 'National Sword' policy
• By 2020 the EU was shipping less than 4000 tonnes of plastic waste compared to 1.4 million tonnes of 2017
• However, waste was still being produced and piling up in the source country, and alternatives were needed
• Exports to South East Asia exploded and Turkey became the EU's top destination for waste export (40% of UKs plastic waste was exported to Turkey in 2020)
• Since China imposed its ban, LDEs have become overwhelmed with waste and in many instances have returned illegally exported contaminated waste back to the country of origin
• China finally imposed a total ban on foreign waste imports in January 2021
• Despite new regulations, major exporters such as the U.S. continue to ship large volumes of waste