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AQA A Level Chemistry

Revision Notes

Home / A Level / Chemistry / AQA / Revision Notes / 4. AS Practical Skills / 4.2 Organic & Inorganic Chemistry Practicals / 4.2.4 Testing for Organic Functional Groups


4.2.4 Testing for Organic Functional Groups


Testing for Organic Functional Groups

REQUIRED PRACTICAL 6

  • For this practical, you need to be able to give the tests and positive results for the following functional groups:
    • Alkenes
    • Alcohols
    • Aldehydes
    • Carboxylic Acids

Testing for an Alkene

  • Halogens can be used to test if a molecule is unsaturated (i.e. contains a double bond)
  • Br2(aq) is an orange-yellow solution, called bromine water
  • The unknown compound is shaken with the bromine water
  • If the compound is unsaturated, an addition reaction will take place and the coloured solution will decolourise

Hydrocarbons Bromine Water, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

The bromine water test is the standard test for unsaturation in alkenes

Testing an Alcohol

  • Alcohols can be classified as either primary, secondary or tertiary, depending on the placement of the -OH group
  • Primary and secondary alcohols can both be oxidised, but tertiary alcohols cannot
  • To test for the alcohol functional group, add a small amount (1 cm3) of the substance to a test tube using a pipette
  • Then, add a small amount (1 cm3) of a suitable oxidising agent to the sample using a different pipette
    • The most commonly used oxidising agent for this test is acidified potassium dichromate solution (K2Cr2O7, acidified with H2SO4)

  • Add a stopper to the test tube and shake well
  • Place in a hot water bath (heated to around 60 oC) for a few minutes
  • If a primary or secondary alcohol are present, then the colour will change from orange to green
    • If a tertiary alcohol is present, then nothing will happen - the solution will remain orange

Hydroxy Compounds Tests Alcohols, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

Positive test results of the oxidation of a primary, secondary and tertiary alcohol

Testing for an Aldehyde

Fehling’s solution

  • Fehling’s solution is an alkaline solution containing copper(II) ions which act as the oxidising agent
  • When warmed with an aldehyde, the aldehyde is oxidised to a carboxylic acid and the Cu2+ ions are reduced to Cu+ ions
    • In the alkaline conditions, the carboxylic acid formed will be neutralised to a carboxylate ion (the -COOH will lose a proton to become -COO– )
    • The carboxylate ion (-COO–) will form a salt with a positively charged metal ion such as sodium (-COO–Na+)

  • The clear blue colour of the solution turns opaque red due to the formation of a copper(I) oxide precipitate
  • Ketones cannot be oxidised and therefore give a negative test when warmed with Fehling’s solution

Carbonyl Compounds Fehlings Solution, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

The copper(II) ions in Fehling’s solution are oxidising agents, oxidising the aldehyde to a carboxylic acid and getting reduced themselves to copper(I) ions in the Cu2O precipitate

Tollens’ reagent

  • Tollens' reagent is an aqueous alkaline solution of silver nitrate in excess ammonia solution
    • Tollens' reagent is also called ammoniacal silver nitrate solution

  • When warmed with an aldehyde, the aldehyde is oxidised to a carboxylic acid and the Ag+ ions are reduced to Ag atoms
    • In the alkaline conditions, the carboxylic acid will become a carboxylate ion and form a salt

  • The Ag atoms form a silver ‘mirror’ on the inside of the tube
  • Ketones cannot be oxidised and therefore give a negative test when warmed with Tollens’ reagent

Carbonyl Compounds Tollens Reagent, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

The Ag+ ions in Tollens’ reagent are oxidising agents, oxidising the aldehyde to a carboxylic acid and getting reduced themselves to silver atoms

Testing for a Carboxylic Acid

  • Carboxylic acids in solution have a pH of around 3, so measuring the pH is a way of testing for the presence of the carboxylic acid functional group in an organic sample
  • The end of a glass rod could be dipped into the solution and then carefully dripped onto indicator paper
  • Or, a pH probe could be used, which would give you an exact pH
  • Since carboxylic acids are acids, they will react with a carbonate solution to produce carbon dioxide gas
  • 1-2 cm3 of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) or sodium hydrogen carbonate solution (NaHCO3) could be added using a pipette
  • If bubbles of gas are seen, this is a good indicator that the solution is a carboxylic acid
    • If an exam question asks you to simply distinguish between different types of organic compound, and the carboxylic acid is the only organic compound present which would react in this way with a carbonate solution, then this is enough

  • The gas produced could then be bubbled into limewater
  • If the limewater turns milky or cloudy, then this proves that the gas produced was carbon dioxide



  • 1. Physical Chemistry
    • 1.1 Atomic Structure
      • 1.1.1 Fundamental Particles
        • 1.1.2 Mass Number & Isotopes
          • 1.1.3 Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry
            • 1.1.4 Shells and Orbitals
              • 1.1.5 Electron Configuration
                • 1.1.6 Ionisation Energy
                  • 1.1.7 Ionisation Energy: Trends & Evidence
                  • 1.2 Formulae, Equations & Calculations
                    • 1.2.1 Relative Atomic Mass & Relative Molecular Mass
                      • 1.2.2 Empirical & Molecular Formula
                        • 1.2.3 Balanced Equations
                          • 1.2.4 Reaction Yields
                            • 1.2.5 Atom Economy
                              • 1.2.6 Hydrated Salts
                              • 1.3 The Mole, Avogadro & The Ideal Gas Equation
                                • 1.3.1 The Mole & the Avogadro Constant
                                  • 1.3.2 Reacting Masses
                                    • 1.3.3 Reacting Volumes
                                      • 1.3.4 The Ideal Gas Equation
                                      • 1.4 Types of Bonding & Properties
                                        • 1.4.1 Changes in State: Energy Changes
                                          • 1.4.2 Ionic Bonding
                                            • 1.4.3 Covalent Bonding
                                              • 1.4.4 Dative Covalent Bonding
                                                • 1.4.5 Dot & Cross Diagrams
                                                  • 1.4.6 Metallic Bonding
                                                    • 1.4.7 Properties of Ionic Compounds
                                                      • 1.4.8 Properties of Covalent Substances
                                                        • 1.4.9 Properties of Metallic Substances
                                                          • 1.4.10 Effects of Structure & Bonding
                                                          • 1.5 Molecules: Shapes & Forces
                                                            • 1.5.1 Shapes of Simple Molecules & Ions
                                                              • 1.5.2 Bond Polarity
                                                                • 1.5.3 Types of Forces Between Molecules
                                                                  • 1.5.4 Effects of Forces Between Molecules
                                                                  • 1.6 Energetics
                                                                    • 1.6.1 Bond Energy
                                                                      • 1.6.2 Energy Level Diagrams
                                                                        • 1.6.3 Enthalpy Changes
                                                                          • 1.6.4 Calorimetry
                                                                            • 1.6.5 Hess' Law
                                                                              • 1.6.6 Applications of Hess’s Law
                                                                                • 1.6.7 Bond Enthalpies
                                                                                • 1.7 Kinetics
                                                                                  • 1.7.1 Collision Theory
                                                                                    • 1.7.2 Measuring Rates of Reaction
                                                                                      • 1.7.3 Maxwell–Boltzmann Distributions
                                                                                        • 1.7.4 Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate
                                                                                          • 1.7.5 Effect of Concentration & Pressure
                                                                                            • 1.7.6 Catalysts
                                                                                            • 1.8 Chemical Equilibria, Le Chatelier's Principle & Kc
                                                                                              • 1.8.1 Chemical Equilibria
                                                                                                • 1.8.2 Le Chatelier's principle
                                                                                                  • 1.8.3 The Equilibrium Constant, Kc
                                                                                                    • 1.8.4 Calculations Involving the Equilibrium Constant
                                                                                                      • 1.8.5 Changes Which Affect the Equilibrium
                                                                                                      • 1.9 Oxidation, Reduction & Redox Equations
                                                                                                        • 1.9.1 Oxidation & Reduction
                                                                                                          • 1.9.2 Oxidation States: The Rules
                                                                                                            • 1.9.3 Redox Equations
                                                                                                          • 2. Inorganic Chemistry
                                                                                                            • 2.1 Periodicity
                                                                                                              • 2.1.1 Classification of an Element
                                                                                                                • 2.1.2 Trends of Period 3 Elements: Atomic Radius
                                                                                                                  • 2.1.3 Trends of Period 3 Elements: First Ionisation Energy
                                                                                                                    • 2.1.4 Trends of Period 3 Elements: Melting Point
                                                                                                                    • 2.2 Group 2, the Alkaline Earth Metals
                                                                                                                      • 2.2.1 Trends in Group 2: The Alkaline Earth Metals
                                                                                                                        • 2.2.2 Solubility of Group 2 Compounds: Hydroxides & Sulfates
                                                                                                                          • 2.2.3 Reactions of Group 2
                                                                                                                            • 2.2.4 Uses of Group 2 Elements
                                                                                                                            • 2.3 Group 7 (17), the Halogens
                                                                                                                              • 2.3.1 Physical Properties of Group 7
                                                                                                                                • 2.3.2 Chemical Properties of Group 7
                                                                                                                                  • 2.3.3 Testing for Halide Ions
                                                                                                                                    • 2.3.4 Uses & Reactions of Chlorine
                                                                                                                                  • 3. Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                    • 3.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                      • 3.1.1 Functional Groups
                                                                                                                                        • 3.1.2 Types of Formulae
                                                                                                                                          • 3.1.3 Nomenclature
                                                                                                                                            • 3.1.4 Structural Isomerism
                                                                                                                                              • 3.1.5 Stereoisomerism
                                                                                                                                              • 3.2 Alkanes
                                                                                                                                                • 3.2.1 Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
                                                                                                                                                  • 3.2.2 Modification of Alkanes by Cracking
                                                                                                                                                    • 3.2.3 Combustion of Alkanes
                                                                                                                                                      • 3.2.4 Chlorination of Alkanes
                                                                                                                                                      • 3.3 Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                        • 3.3.1 Reactivity of Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                          • 3.3.2 Reactions of Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                            • 3.3.3 Ozone Depletion
                                                                                                                                                            • 3.4 Alkenes
                                                                                                                                                              • 3.4.1 Structure, Bonding & Reactivity
                                                                                                                                                                • 3.4.2 Isomerism in Alkenes
                                                                                                                                                                  • 3.4.3 Reactions of Alkenes
                                                                                                                                                                    • 3.4.4 Test for Unsaturation
                                                                                                                                                                      • 3.4.5 Addition Polymers
                                                                                                                                                                        • 3.4.6 Solution to Plastic Pollution
                                                                                                                                                                        • 3.5 Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                          • 3.5.1 Classifying Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                            • 3.5.2 Alcohol Production
                                                                                                                                                                              • 3.5.3 Oxidation of Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                                • 3.5.4 Combustion of Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 3.5.5 Elimination Reactions of Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 3.6 Organic Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 3.6.1 Identification of Functional Groups by Test-Tube Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 3.6.2 Mass spectrometry
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 3.6.3 Infrared Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 3.7 Organic Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 3.7.1 Fundamentals of Reaction Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 3.7.2 Chlorination of Alkanes
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 3.7.3 Nucleophilic Substitution
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 3.7.4 Elimination
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 3.7.5 Electrophilic Addition
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4. AS Practical Skills
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.1 Physical Chemistry Practicals
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.1.1 Making a Volumetric Solution
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.1.2 Performing a Titration & Volumetric Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.1.3 Measurement of an Enthalpy Change
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.1.4 Factors Affecting the Rate of a Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.2 Organic & Inorganic Chemistry Practicals
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.2.1 Reactions of Group 2 Elements
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.2.2 Identifying Anions & Cations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.2.3 Distillation of a Product from a Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.2.4 Testing for Organic Functional Groups
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5. Advanced Physical Chemistry (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.1 Thermodynamics (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.1.1 Thermodynamic Terms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.1.2 Born-Haber Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.1.3 Born-Haber Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.1.4 Comparing Lattice Enthalpies
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.1.5 Enthalpy of Solution & Hydration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.1.6 Entropy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.1.7 Gibbs Free Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.1.8 Reaction Feasibility
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.2 Rate Equations (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.2.1 Rate Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.2.2 Deriving Rate Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.2.3 Rate Equation Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.2.4 The Arrhenius Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.2.5 Finding Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.2.6 Concentration-Time Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.2.7 Rate-Concentration Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.2.8 Rate Determining Step
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.3 Equilibrium constant (Kp) for Homogeneous Systems (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.3.1 Kp Expressions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.3.2 Partial Pressure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.3.3 Changes in Temperature & Pressure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.4 Electrode Potentials & Electrochemical Cells (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.4.1 Representing Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.4.2 Standard Electrode Potentials
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.4.3 Predicting Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.4.4 Commercial Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.4.5 Lithium Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.4.6 Fuel Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.5 Fundamentals of Acids & Bases (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.5.1 Brønsted–Lowry Acid & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.5.2 pH & [H⁺]
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.5.3 The Ionic Product of Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.6 Further Acids & Bases Calculations (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.6.1 Acid Dissociation Constant
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.6.2 pKₐ
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.6.3 Titrations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.6.4 pH Curves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.6.5 Buffers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.1 Properties of Period 3 Elements & their Oxides (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.1.1 Na & Mg with water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.1.2 Reaction with Oxygen
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.1.3 Melting Point Trend
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.1.4 Oxides Reacting with Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.2 Transition Metals (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.2.1 General Properties of Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.2.2 Ligand Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.2.3 Shapes of Complex Ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.2.4 Formation of Coloured Ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.2.5 Variable Oxidation States
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.2.6 Redox Titrations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.2.7 Catalysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.3 Reactions of Ions in Aqueous Solution (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.3.1 Metal-Aqua Ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.3.2 Reactions with Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7. Advanced Organic Chemistry (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.1 Optical Isomerism (A-level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.1.1 Optical Isomerism
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.1.2 Identifying Chiral Centres
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.1.3 Racemic Mixtures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.2 Aldehydes & Ketones (A-level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.2.1 Aldehydes & Ketones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.2.2 Reduction of Carbonyls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.2.3 Nucleophilic Addition
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.3 Carboxylic Acids & Derivatives (A-level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.3.1 Carboxylic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.3.2 Esters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.3.3 Biodiesel
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.3.4 Ester Hydrolysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.3.5 Acylation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.3.6 Manufacture of Aspirin
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.4 Aromatic Chemistry (A-level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.4.1 Structure of Benzene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.4.2 Nitration of Benzene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.4.3 Friedel–Crafts Acylation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.5 Amines (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.5.1 Preparation of Amines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.5.2 Basic Properties
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.5.3 Nucleophilic Substitution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.5.4 Nucleophilic Addition–Elimination
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.5.5 Quaternary Ammonium Salts
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.6 Polymers (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.6.1 Condensation Polymers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.6.2 Biodegradability & Disposal of Polymers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.7 Amino acids, Proteins & DNA (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.7.1 Amino Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.7.2 Proteins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.7.3 Enzymes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.7.4 DNA
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.7.5 Anticancer Drugs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.8 Organic Synthesis (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.8.1 Organic Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.9 Organic Mechanisms (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.9.1 Organic Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.10 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.10.1 Principles of NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.10.2 ¹H NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.10.3 ¹³C NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.11 Chromatography (A-level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.11.1 Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.11.2 Thin Layer Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.11.3 Column Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.11.4 Gas Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.11.5 Interpreting Chromatograms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8. A-Level Practical Skills (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.1 Physical Chemistry Practicals (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.1.1 Required Practical 7
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.1.2 Required Practical 8
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.1.3 Required Practical 9
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.1.4 Entropy of Vaporisation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.1.5 Iodine Clock Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.1.6 Determination of Kc
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.1.7 Making Simple Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.1.8 Finding Ka
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.1.9 Titration Curves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.1.10 Making Buffers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.2 Inorganic Chemistry Practicals (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.2.1 Required Practical 11
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.2.2 Testing Period 3 Oxides
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2.3 Ligand Substitution Experiments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.2.4 Redox Titrations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.2.5 Vanadium Oxidation States
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.2.6 Colorimetry & Complex Ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.2.7 Autocatalysis Experiments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.2.8 Identifying Ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.2.9 Reactions of Metal-Aqua Ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.3 Organic Chemistry Practicals (A Level only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.3.1 Required Practical 10a
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.3.2 Required Practical 10b
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.3.3 Testing Aldehydes & Ketones
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.3.4 Required Practical 12


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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Author: Sankari



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