Contesting Global Influence (Edexcel A Level Geography)

• There are some areas of the world where ownership of the resources is disputed
• This can lead to disagreements over the exploitation of resources and ultimately conflict
• As the resources already available are depleted the pressure to exploit other areas increases

Arctic 

• The area within the Arctic Circle is mostly ocean, this means there is no international treaty to protect the environment
• The United Nations Convention of the Law of The Sea (UNCLOS) should provide some protection but:
  • Recent claims from Norway Canada, Denmark, USA and Russia all seek to extend their territorial claim and allow mining 
  • A new code of practice set out by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) would permit mining
• It is estimated that the Arctic contains 160 billion barrels of oil and 30% of the world's undiscovered gas
• Rare minerals are also present, with US Geological Survey (USGS) evaluating the area as the world's largest area of undeveloped rare earth minerals
• There are a number of nations with territorial waters within the Arctic Circle

Territorial claims in the Arctic

• Climate change is decreasing the size of the ice sheet
• This improves accessibility and makes drilling for oil and gas easier
• The Lomonosov ridge is an area of undersea mountains, Canada, Russia and Greenland all have claimed the area but its ownership is still disputed

Resource exploitation in the Arctic

• Norway has granted licences for the exploration for oil and gas in the Barents Sea
• The first offshore oil platform in the Arctic was set up in 2013 and is operated by Gazprom the Russian energy company
• Greenland now has two active mines and the potential for more increases as the ice which covers 80% of Greenland melts 
• The US has recently approved the Willow project in the north of Alaska 
  • This will allow drilling for an estimated 600 million barrels of oil

Tensions

• All five states have begun to strengthen their military presence in the Arctic Circle
• Russia has reintroduced a military presence making improvements to bases in the north of Russia
• Norway has focussed investments in the military in the north of the country
  • NATO exercise Cold Response in 2022 was led by Norway and based around conflict in the Arctic
• The Canadian Armed Forces have engaged in a number of military exercises with the US based around defending their claim in the Arctic
  • Exercise Arctic Edge and Ice Exercise in 2022

• Intellectual property rights (IPR) are the rights people or companies have over their creations and fall into two categories:
  • Industrial property - inventions, trademarks, industrial designs, geographical indications of origin
  • Copyright - literary and artistic works, radio and television programmes, performances
• TNCs and governments are the main sources of new inventions and brands
  • Companies and governments spend vast amounts on research and development (R & D)
  • Protection of new inventions is important because without it:
    • Companies/countries would not spend money on R&D if it was simply going to benefit other companies/countries
    • It would reduce trade as companies would not want to share new inventions with other countries as it would risk the idea being stolen
• Industrial property rights falls in two main areas:
  • Protection of distinctive features such as trademarks and also geographical location
    • Champagne can only be produced in a specific region of France
  • Protection of inventions (using patents), industrial designs and trade secrets
    • The recipe of Coca Cola 
• There is a worldwide trade in counterfeits and fakes of brands and products which undermines the global system of IPR
• It is estimated that every year $300 billion is lost in the US and €43billion in the EU as a result of intellectual property theft
• The global value of counterfeit and pirated products is estimated at $1.7 trillion 
  • This is crime against IPR and is illegal
  • Agreement exists to protect brand names. This is known as Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)

• The sphere of influence is the area over which a country feels it has influence outside its own borders
• The country has no legal or formal authority in the area
• This can lead to tensions and conflict as countries compete to have control over land and/or resources
• There are many areas across the world that are in the midst of tensions and conflict

Eastern Europe

• In 1991 the dissolution of the USSR led to the independence of 15 nations including Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Moldova
• Russia's influence over these countries has declined since then with Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania joining the EU and NATO in 2004
• The expansion of the EU and NATO has led Russia to be concerned about its influence in the region
• Russia's concerns about Ukraine and Georgia stating their aspirations to join NATO and Ukraine and Moldova wanting to join the EU escalated tensions in the area
• In 2014 Russia annexed Crimea an area of Ukraine 
• Russia has for many years backed separatists in Ukraine, Georgia and Moldova
• Tensions culminated with the invasion of Ukraine by Russia in 2022 and the ongoing conflict 

NATO expansion in Europe

South China Sea

• One of the most contested ocean regions in the world
  • There are a number of islands in the South China Sea which are claimed by different nations including China and the Philippines
• The area is essential for trade as it forms the link between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, it is estimated that each year:
  • Over 30% of global trade passes through the South China Sea - US$5.3 trillion 
  • Approximately 40% of the world's petroleum products pass through the area
• The area is also globally significant in terms of biodiversity supporting coral reefs and almost 3,500 species of fish
• Over 12% of the fish caught each year across the globe are caught in the region
• The two main contested areas are the :
  • Spratly Islands
  • Paracel Islands

Contested areas in the South China Sea

Spratly Islands

• Contested by China, Taiwan, the Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei and Vietnam
• China has embarked on building islands to increase their presence in the area
• This is concerning for the USA as it increased military presence in the region could reduce the US Navy's ability to move freely between the Pacific and Indian Ocean, impacting on its military's global reach
  • The US has as a result increased its naval presence in the area

• At the moment all but Taiwan (non-UN state) have agreed to UNCLOS which includes the legal framework governing claims in maritime areas
  • According to UNCLOS a nation's territorial sea should not exceed 12 miles from its coast with the exception of Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) which extends to the edge of the continental shelf
• China has used a number of strategies to increase its influence in the area
  • The 'nine-dash line' in the South China Sea
    • If these dashes were connected it would enclose almost all the South China Sea
  • The use of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) to extend its claim on resources beyond the UNCLOS 12 mile limit