Ore Mineral Security (AQA A Level Geography)

Sources, distribution and trade of copper

• A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid with a crystalline structure
• Ores are concentrations of minerals in rock high enough to be economically extracted for use
• Deposits of copper are found in the Earth’s crust
• Copper was first extracted and used in around 8000 BCE
• One of the few metals that can occur naturally in a usable form
• Copper deposits are found in many regions worldwide, but significant concentrations are focused in a few areas
• The largest copper-producing countries are Chile, Peru, China, the United States, and Australia
• Chile is the world's leading copper producer, with vast reserves and numerous mining operations
• USA and Canada have significant copper deposits, with notable mines in Arizona, Utah, and British Columbia
• Asia is a significant copper producer
• Within Asia, China is the biggest producer and consumer of copper.
• The distribution of copper deposits is influenced by geological processes, tectonic activity, and the presence of specific mineralised zones

Estimated copper production, 2017 (in thousand metric tonnes)

• Copper has various characteristics which gives it many uses in industrial and domestic settings
• Conducts heat and electricity 
• Malleable and ductile
• Durable
• Copper oxidises by developing a green protective layer on its surface, called patina
• This can preserve the inside of copper for thousands of years.
• Anti-Bacterial
• Recyclable
• Over 80 percent copper ever mined and manufactured is still in use today

Uses of Copper

Category	Examples of uses
Electrical	Wiring for circuits, circuit boards, micro-cips, semiconductors, internet cable, electromagnets, solar panels
Building construction	Piping for water and heating, heat exchangers in thermal power stations, irrigation systems, light fittings, door handles
Transport	Vehicle radiators, oil coolers, heating systems, electric vehicle, aircraft control systems, shipping hulls

• The components of demand for copper include:
• Technological advancements
• Population change
• Global economic conditions
• Copper is traded around the world but two-thirds of copper concentrates are processed in their region of origin
• Cheaper and easier
• Copper content of ore is often low, with large percentage of waste rock
• Refined in situ to save transport costs
• Copper concentrate and processed copper products are traded as they are required by most countries
• Supply of copper is often not in the same location as the major demand
• Of the concentrate that is traded, the biggest flows are from South America to Asia

Major trade flows of copper concentrate (average per year in thousand tonnes)

• Recent trends in the global copper trade include:
• Over 60% of global copper consumption is in Asia
• In 1990 USA was the largest consumer of copper
• By 2015 China had overtaken USA as the world's largest consumer of copper, accounting for nearly 40% of global demand
• The biggest source of China’s copper imports is Chile
• Almost 9 million tons from Chile in 2021
• Driven by China’s economic growth and policies:
• Rapid industrialisation
• Infrastructure development
• Urbanisation
• China’s own copper reserves are plentiful but confined to small and medium sized mines
• Increasing demand for electric vehicles (EVs)
• Due to use in electrical wiring and components
• Sustainable and responsible mining practices
• Increasing focus on sustainable and responsible mining practices in the copper industry

Physical geography of copper ore

Sources of Copper Ore and Key Aspects of Physical Geography

Ore mineral source	Description	Geological formation	Location
Porphyry ore deposits	Most common type of copper ore (60% of all supply) Low-grade - 1-2% copper content Often found alongside other minerals e.g. zinc and gold, so economically viable despite low content Extracted in open-cast pits	Formed in tectonic subduction zones Hydrothermal fluids escape from magma chambers into rock layers above to form mineral deposits	Along destructive plate margins E.g. Andes and Rockies mountain ranges
Massive sulphide deposits	Higher grade - 2-5% copper content Less widespread than porphyry	Hydrothermal release of magma on seafloor as two plates pull apart Deposits merge with sediment and become embedded Over millions of years tectonic uplift of seabed above the sea level exposes deposits as land	Constructive plate margins along mid-ocean ridges Former ocean ridges now uplifted into land E.g. Otavi sediments of northern Namibia
Strata bound copper deposits	Least widely distributed Richest in copper content - up to 6%	Copper-rich sea water interacts with sedimentary rocks, leading to chemical reactions and the deposition of copper in specific layers in ocean basins Over millions of years tectonic uplift of seabed above the sea level exposes deposits as land	The Copper Belt of the southern Katanga Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo