5.2 Classification & Cladistics

Cetaceans are an order of carnivorous aquatic mammals which include dolphins, whales and porpoises. The following diagram shows two proposals that have been put forward regarding the closest living relative of the cetaceans, represented by diagrams R and S.

Compare and contrast the information in diagrams R and S.

Casein is a protein found in the milk of most mammals. Scientists investigated the differences in the DNA base sequence of the gene coding for casein in the mammals shown in diagrams R and S. The following table shows their results.

Scientists concluded that diagram S best represents the currently accepted theory regarding the evolutionary origin of cetacean.

Based on the information provided, evaluate this conclusion.

More recently, scientists decided to merge the order Cetacea and Artiodactyla into a single order called Cetartiodactyla based on new sequencing results.

Explain the importance of classifying organisms correctly according to their clade.

Based on the information provided in part a), deduce four other taxonomic groupings/levels of classification that would be similar for dolphins and whales.

DNA hybridisation is a technique used to determine the genetic similarity between species. The double stranded DNA of two different species is mixed and then heated until the strands separate. This provides an opportunity for hybridisation between the different DNA strands to occur. The mixture is then cooled in order to allow new hybrid double stranded DNA molecules to form. The greater the degree of hybridisation, the more genetically similar the two species are.

Scientists investigated the genetic similarity between four species of bacteria (A to D) by allowing their DNA to hybridise with each other. The results of this investigation are shown in the table below.

Identify the species of bacteria that is most closely related to the other bacterial species.

[1]

Explain your answer at part i).

[1]

Scientists concluded that species D was the first to branch off from the common ancestor that they all share.

Based on the information provided, comment on this conclusion.

The group of scientists also investigated the similarity of the protein molecules that make up peptidoglycan in the cell walls of the bacterial species. The amino acid sequence of species A was compared to those of species B to D.

The results are shown in the table below:

Based on the information provided and your knowledge of protein synthesis, explain the reason why the bacterial species show such a high level of similarity between the protein molecules, even though there are differences in their DNA.

The following diagram shows a cladogram that indicates the evolutionary relationship of plants. Note that different taxonomic groups are represented in the cladogram.

Identify the plant phyla which are the most closely related

Bryophyta are found in a variety of environments and are typically very small in size. Filicinophyta are able to grow to much larger sizes than Bryophyta.

Using your knowledge of plant phyla characteristics, explain the difference in size between Bryophyta and Filicinophyta.

The common names of some plant genera and species were given in this cladogram.

Using the information given in part a), explain how using the common names could cause confusion when studying this cladogram.

Gemniferous spikemoss, tooth-leaved clubmoss, spikemoss and the resurrection plant can all be considered members of the same clade.

Explain this statement.

One mark is available for clarity of communication throughout this question.

The binomial naming system is an important tool to facilitate cooperation and collaboration between groups of scientists.

Discuss how the binomial system will facilitate cooperation and collaboration between scientists.

Compare and contrast the domain Eubacteria with the domain Eukaryotes.

Constructing the evolutionary relationship between organisms based on morphology alone will not always deliver accurate results.

Outline the advancements that have been made in constructing cladograms in the field of cladistics.

Specimen A and specimen B are similar species of invertebrate. 

Scientists wanted to determine whether specimen A and B are different species of invertebrate, or different forms of the same species.

In order to do this they caught large numbers of each specimen type and measured the body mass and length of each individual before calculating the means and standard deviations (SD). Their results are shown in the table below.

Explain how the standard deviation can help with the interpretation of this data.

The scientists hypothesised that the two specimens were different forms of the same invertebrate species.

Evaluate this hypothesis using the data in the table part (a).

The appearance of specimen A is shown in the image below.

 Use the dichotomous key below to deduce the order to which specimen A belongs.

Use information provided in part (c) to identify, with a reason, the animal phylum to which specimen A belongs.

Cytochrome c is a respiratory protein consisting of roughly 100 amino acids while haemoglobin is a quaternary protein found in red blood cells consisting of over 400 amino acids.

Suggest, with a reason, which of these two proteins is a better choice for use in identifying evolutionary relationships across plantae, fungi and animalia.

Explain how biochemical sequence analysis, as opposed to other methods of classification, ensures that natural classification is carried out.

Scientists studied the amino acid sequence of cytochrome c in five different animals. The amino acid sequence was compared with human cytochrome c and the number of differences to the human sequence were recorded.  The results are shown in the table below.                                                                            

State, with a reason, one conclusion that can be reached from the data in the table above about the relationship of humans to other animals.

An assistant who looked at the results in the table in part (c) suggested that dogs were more closely related to ducks than to any of the other animals.

State, with a reason, whether or not the student’s suggestion is valid.

The image below shows the classification of some animals with antlers and horns.

State the number of different orders that are present in the image above.

Compare and contrast the sciences of taxonomy and cladistics.

Deer are members of the suborder (a smaller division within an order) ruminantia, which are themselves members of the order artiodactyla. The relationships between the artiodactyla are shown on the cladogram below.  * denotes a now extinct taxon. 

Identify, with a reason, an example of the closest evolutionary relationship shown in the cladogram.

A student reading the cladogram in part (c) identified the ruminantia as a clade.

Explain why the student was incorrect in their identification of the ruminantia as a clade.

One mark is available for clarity of communication throughout this question.

Describe the features of archaea that mean they are classified as a distinct domain in the three domains system of classification.  

Compare and contrast phylum annelida and phylum platyhelminthes.

Outline the reclassification of the scrophulariaceae, or figwort family.