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Edexcel A Level Physics

Revision Notes

Home / A Level / Physics / Edexcel / Revision Notes / 10. Space / Astronomy / 10.5 The Life Cycle of Stars


10.5 The Life Cycle of Stars


The Life Cycle of Stars

  • The life cycle of stars go in predictable stages
  • The exact route a star's development takes depends on its initial mass

Initial Stages for All Masses

  • The first four stages in the life cycle of stars are the same for stars of all masses
  • After these stages, the life-cycle branches depending on the whether the star is:
    • Low mass: stars with a mass less than about 1.4 times the mass of the Sun (< 1.4 MSun)
    • High mass: stars with a mass more than about 1.4 times the mass of the Sun (> 1.4 MSun)

1. Nebula

  • All stars form from a giant cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a nebula
    • Gravitational attraction between individual atoms forms denser clumps of matter
    • This inward movement of matter is called gravitational collapse

2. Protostar

  • The gravitational collapse causes the gas to heat up and glow, forming a protostar
    • Work done on the particles of gas and dust by collisions between the particles causes an increase in their kinetic energy, resulting in an increase in temperature
    • Protostars can be detected by telescopes that can observe infrared radiation

       

3. Nuclear Fusion

  • Eventually the temperature will reach millions of degrees Kelvin and the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to helium nuclei begins
    • The protostar’s gravitational field continues to attract more gas and dust, increasing the temperature and pressure of the core
    • With more frequent collisions, the kinetic energy of the particles increases, increasing the probability that fusion will occur

4. Main Sequence Star

  • The star reaches a stable state where the inward and outward forces are in equilibrium
    • As the temperature of the star increases and its volume decreases due to gravitational collapse, the gas pressure increases
  • A star will spend most of its life on the main sequence
    • 90% of stars are on the main sequence
    • Main sequence stars can vary in mass from ~10% of the mass of the Sun to 200 times the mass of the Sun
    • The Sun has been on the main sequence for 4.6 billion years and will remain there for an estimated 6.5 billion years

10-5-main-sequence-star_edexcel-al-physics-rn

Next Stages for Low Mass Stars

  • The fate of a star beyond the main sequence depends on its mass
    • The cut-off point is 1.4 times the mass of the Sun
    • A star is classed as a low-mass star if it has a mass less than 1.4 times the mass of the Sun
    • A low-mass star will become a red giant before turning into a white dwarf

5. Red Giant

  • Hydrogen fuelling the star begins to run out
    • Most of the hydrogen nuclei in the core of the star have been fused into helium
    • Nuclear fusion slows
    • Energy released by fusion decreases
  • The star initially shrinks and then swells and cools to form a red giant
  • Fusion continues in the shell around the core

 

6. Planetary Nebula

  • The outer layers of the star are released
    • Core helium burning releases massive amounts of energy in the fusion reactions

 

7. White Dwarf

  • The solid core collapses under its own mass, leaving a very hot, dense core called a white dwarf

Lifecycle of Solar mass stars, downloadable IGCSE & GCSE Physics revision notes

The lifecycle of a low mass star

Next Stages for Massive Stars

5. Red Super Giant

  • The star follows the same process as the formation of a red giant
    • The shell burning and core burning cycle in massive stars goes beyond that of low-mass stars, fusing elements up to iron

6. Supernova

  • The iron core collapses
  • The outer shell is blown out in an explosive supernova

 

7. Neutron Star (or Black Hole)

  • After the supernova explosion, the collapsed neutron core can remain intact having formed a neutron star
    • If the neutron core mass is greater than 3 times the solar mass, the pressure on the core becomes so great that the core collapses and produces a black hole

Lifecycle of Larger Mass Stars, downloadable IGCSE & GCSE Physics revision notes

Lifecycle of massive stars

Worked Example

Stars less massive than our Sun will leave the main sequence and become red giants.

Describe and explain the next stages of evolution for such stars.

Step 1: Underline the command words

    • Describe questions require details of the processes occurring
    • Explain questions require details of how and why those processes occur
      • This question requires both

Step 2: Identify the mass of the star 

    • The stars in the question are less massive than the Sun, therefore it is referring to low-mass stars

  • Step 3: Identify the stage of life cycle being asked about 
  •  
    • The question asks for the next stage of evolution after becoming a red giant
    • It requires an explanation of the processes during the red giant phase

Step 4: Plan the answer

    • Make a list of the remaining stages in the evolution of a low-mass star
      • Red giant
      • Planetary nebula
      • White dwarf
    • Add to the list any important points or key words that need to be included in the answer
      • Red giant
        • Fuel runs out
        • Forces no longer balanced
        • Expands and cools
        • Fusion continues in shell
      • Planetary nebula
        • Carbon-oxygen core not hot enough for further fusion
        • Outer layers released
      • White dwarf
        • core collapses leaving remnant core

Step 5: Begin writing the answer using words from the question stem

    • Low-mass stars will leave the main sequence and become red giants…

Step 6: Use the plan to keep the answer concise and logically sequenced

    • Low mass stars leave the main sequence and become red giants when the hydrogen in the core runs out.
    • Reduced energy released by fusion leads to radiation pressure decreasing
      • Radiation pressure and gas pressure no longer balance the gravitational pressure and the core collapses
      • Fusion no longer takes place inside the core.
    • The outer layers expand and cool to form a red giant
    • Temperatures generated by the collapsing core are high enough for fusion to occur in the shell around the core
      • Contraction of the core produces temperatures great enough for the fusion of helium into carbon and oxygen inside the core
      • The carbon-oxygen core is not hot enough for further fusion, so the core collapses
    • The outer layers are ejected forming a planetary nebula
    • The remnant core remains intact leaving a hot, dense, solid core called a white dwarf

Worked Example

Describe the evolution of a star much more massive than our Sun from its formation to its eventual death.

Step 1: Underline the command word

    • Underline the command word ‘describe’
    • A describe question does not need you to explain why the processes happen, but you do need to go into detail about what happens in each stage

Step 2: Identify the mass of the star

    • The star in the question is more massive than the Sun, therefore it is referring to high-mass stars

Step 3: Identify the stage of life cycle being asked about 

    •  This question is about the whole life cycle from formation to death
    • The common first five steps are needed, and then the steps which only apply to massive stars

Step 4: Plan the answer 

    • Use the white space around the question to plan your answer
    • List the stages that a massive star goes through, this will help you form your answer in a logical sequence of events
      • Nebula
      • Protostar
      • Nuclear fusion
      • Main sequence
      • Red super giant
      • Supernova
      • Neutron star/black hole

Step 5: Add to the list any important points or key words that need to be included for each stage

    • Nebula – gravitational collapse
    • Protostar – heats up and glows
    • Nuclear fusion – H to He generates energy
    • Main sequence – stable, forces balanced
    • Red supergiant – expands and cools
    • Supernova – core collapses
    • Neutron star/black hole – remnants

Step 6: Begin writing the answer using words from the question stem to begin

    • A star more massive than our Sun will form from…

Step 7: Use the plan to keep the answer concise and logically sequenced

    • A star more massive than our Sun will form from clouds of gas and dust called a nebula
    • The gravitational collapse of matter increases the temperature of the cloud causing it to glow - this is a protostar
    • Nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei to helium nuclei generates massive amounts of energy
    • The outward radiation pressure and gas pressure balances the inward gravitational pressure and the star become stable entering the main sequence stage
    • When the hydrogen runs out, the outer layers of the star expand and cool forming a red super giant
    • Eventually, the core collapses and the star explodes in a supernova
    • The remnant core either remains intact forming a neutron star, or the core collapses further resulting in a black hole


  • 1. Working as a Physicist
    • Working as a Physicist
      • 1.1 SI Units
        • 1.2 Practical Skills
          • 1.3 Estimating Physical Quantities
            • 1.4 Limitations of Measurements
              • 1.5 Scientific Communication
                • 1.6 Applications of Science
                  • 1.7 The Scientific Community
                    • 1.8 Science & Society
                  • 2. Mechanics
                    • Motion
                      • 2.1 Equations of Motion
                        • 2.2 Motion Graphs
                          • 2.3 Properties of Motion Graphs
                            • 2.4 Scalars & Vectors
                              • 2.5 Resolving Vectors
                                • 2.6 Finding the Resultant Vector
                                  • 2.7 Projectiles
                                    • 2.8 Forces as Vectors
                                    • Forces & Momentum
                                      • 2.9 Force & Acceleration
                                        • 2.10 Mass, Weight & Gravitational Field Strength
                                          • 2.11 Core Practical 1: Investigating the Acceleration of Freefall
                                            • 2.12 Newton's Third Law of Motion
                                              • 2.13 Momentum
                                                • 2.14 Conservation of Linear Momentum
                                                • Moments
                                                  • 2.15 Moments
                                                    • 2.16 Centre of Gravity & The Principle of Moments
                                                    • Work, Energy & Power
                                                      • 2.17 Work
                                                        • 2.18 Kinetic Energy
                                                          • 2.19 Gravitational Potential Energy
                                                            • 2.20 The Principle of Conservation of Energy
                                                              • 2.21 Power
                                                                • 2.22 Efficiency
                                                              • 3. Electric Circuits
                                                                • Current, Potential Difference, Resistance & Power
                                                                  • 3.1 Electric Current
                                                                    • 3.2 Potential Difference
                                                                      • 3.3 Ohm's Law
                                                                        • 3.4 Charge Conservation in Circuits
                                                                          • 3.5 Energy Conservation in Circuits
                                                                            • 3.6 Resistance in Series & Parallel
                                                                              • 3.7 Electrical Power
                                                                                • 3.8 Current-Potential Difference Graphs
                                                                                • Resistance, Resistivity & Potential Dividers
                                                                                  • 3.9 Electrical Resistivity
                                                                                    • 3.10 Core Practical 2: Investigating Resistivity
                                                                                      • 3.11 Current & Drift Velocity
                                                                                        • 3.12 Potential Difference & Conductor Length
                                                                                          • 3.13 Potential Dividers
                                                                                            • 3.14 Potential Dividers & Variable Resistance
                                                                                            • E.M.F & Modelling Resistance
                                                                                              • 3.15 Electromotive Force
                                                                                                • 3.16 Internal Resistance
                                                                                                  • 3.17 E.M.F. vs. Terminal Potential Difference
                                                                                                    • 3.18 Core Practical 3: Investigating E.M.F. & Internal Resistance
                                                                                                      • 3.19 Resistance & Temperature
                                                                                                        • 3.20 Resistance & Illumination
                                                                                                      • 4. Materials
                                                                                                        • Density, Upthrust & Viscous Drag
                                                                                                          • 4.1 Density
                                                                                                            • 4.2 Upthrust
                                                                                                              • 4.3 Viscous Drag
                                                                                                                • 4.4 Core Practical 4: Investigating Viscosity
                                                                                                                • Stretching Materials
                                                                                                                  • 4.5 Hooke's Law
                                                                                                                    • 4.6 Stress, Strain & The Young Modulus
                                                                                                                      • 4.7 Force-Extension Graphs
                                                                                                                        • 4.8 Stress-Strain Graphs
                                                                                                                          • 4.9 Core Practical 5: Investigating Young Modulus
                                                                                                                            • 4.10 Elastic Strain Energy
                                                                                                                          • 5. Waves & Particle Nature of Light
                                                                                                                            • Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
                                                                                                                              • 5.1 Properties of Waves
                                                                                                                                • 5.2 The Wave Equation
                                                                                                                                  • 5.3 Longitudinal Waves
                                                                                                                                    • 5.4 Transverse Waves
                                                                                                                                      • 5.5 Representing Waves on Graphs
                                                                                                                                        • 5.6 Core Practical 6: Investigating the Speed of Sound
                                                                                                                                        • Interference & Stationary Waves
                                                                                                                                          • 5.7 Interference & Superposition of Waves
                                                                                                                                            • 5.8 Phase & Path Difference
                                                                                                                                              • 5.9 Stationary Waves
                                                                                                                                                • 5.10 Wave Speed on a Stretched String
                                                                                                                                                  • 5.11 Core Practical 7: Investigating Stationary Waves
                                                                                                                                                  • Refraction, Reflection & Polarisation
                                                                                                                                                    • 5.12 Equation for the Intensity of Radiation
                                                                                                                                                      • 5.13 Refraction & Refractive Index
                                                                                                                                                        • 5.14 Critical Angle
                                                                                                                                                          • 5.15 Total Internal Reflection
                                                                                                                                                            • 5.16 Measuring Refractive Index
                                                                                                                                                              • 5.17 Converging & Diverging Lenses
                                                                                                                                                                • 5.18 Using Ray Diagrams
                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.22 The Lens Equation
                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.23 Magnification
                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.24 Plane Polarisation
                                                                                                                                                                      • Waves, Electrons & Photons
                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.26 The Diffraction Grating Equation
                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.28 The Wave Nature of Electrons
                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.29 The de Broglie Equation
                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.30 Transmission & Reflection of Waves
                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.31 Pulse-Echo Technique
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.32 Wave-Particle Duality
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.33 Energy of a Photon
                                                                                                                                                                                    • The Photoelectric Effect & Atomic Spectra
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.34 The Photoelectric Effect
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.35 The Photoelectric Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.36 The Electronvolt
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.37 The Particle Nature of EM Radiation
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.38 Atomic Line Spectra
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6. Further Mechanics
                                                                                                                                                                                              • Momentum & Impulse
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.1 Impulse
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.2 Core Practical 9: Investigating Impulse
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.3 Applying Conservation of Linear Momentum
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.4 Core Practical 10: Investigating Collisions using ICT
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.5 Elastic & Inelastic Collisions
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.6 Energy-Momentum Relation
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Circular Motion
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.7 Radians & Angular Displacement
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.8 Angular Velocity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.10 Maintaining Circular Motion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.11 Centripetal Force
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7. Electric & Magnetic Fields
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Electric Fields
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.1 Defining an Electric Field
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.2 Electric Field Strength
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.3 Electric Force between Two Charges
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.4 Electric Field due to a Point Charge
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.5 Electric Field & Potential
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.6 Electric Field between Parallel Plates
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.7 Electric Potential for a Radial Field
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.8 Representing Radial & Uniform Electric Fields
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Capacitance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.9 Capacitance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.10 Energy Stored by a Capacitor
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.11 Charge & Discharge Curves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.12 Core Practical 11: Investigating Capacitor Charge & Discharge
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.13 Exponential Discharge in a Capacitor
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Magnetic Fields
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.14 Magnetic Flux Density, Flux & Flux Linkage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.15 Magnetic Force on a Charged Particle
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.16 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Electromagnetic Induction & Alternating Currents
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.17 Induced E.M.F in a Moving Coil
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.18 Induced E.M.F between Linked Coils
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.19 Lenz's Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.20 Faraday's Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.21 Alternating Currents & Potential Differences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.22 Root-Mean-Square Current & Potential Difference
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8. Nuclear & Particle Physics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • Exploring the Structure of Matter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.1 Nucleon & Proton Number
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2 The Nuclear Model of the Atom
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.3 Thermionic Emission
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.4 Particle Accelerators & Detectors
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.5 Radius of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.6 Interpreting Particle Tracks
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.7 High Energy Particle Collisions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.8 Annihilation of Matter & Antimatter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.9 Unit Conversions for Energy & Mass
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.10 Relativistic Situations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Particle Interactions & Conservation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.11 The Standard Model
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.12 Antimatter
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.13 Conservation Laws in Particle Physics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.14 Particle Interaction Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9. Thermodynamics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Thermal Energy Transfer
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.1 Specific Heat Capacity & Latent Heat
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.2 Core Practical 12: Calibrating a Thermistor
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.3 Core Practical 13: Investigating Specific Latent Heat
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • Kinetic Theory & Ideal Gases
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 9.4 Internal Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 9.5 Temperature & Absolute Zero
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 9.6 Kinetic Theory of Gases Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 9.7 Ideal Gas Equation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 9.8 Core Practical 14: Investigating Gas Pressure & Volume
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 9.9 Average Molecular Kinetic Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Black Body Radiation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 9.10 Black Body Radiation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 9.11 Stefan-Boltzmann Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 9.12 Wien’s Law
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10. Space
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Astronomy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 10.1 Inverse Square Law of Flux
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 10.2 Parallax
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 10.3 Standard Candles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 10.4 The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 10.5 The Life Cycle of Stars
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Cosmology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 10.6 Doppler Shift
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 10.7 Equations for Cosmology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 10.8 Cosmology
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11. Nuclear Radiation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Nuclear Fusion & Fission
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.1 Nuclear Binding Energy & Mass Deficit
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 11.2 Atomic Mass Unit
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 11.3 Binding Energy per Nucleon Graph
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 11.4 Nuclear Fusion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • Radioactivity Decay
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 11.6 Alpha, Beta & Gamma Radiation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 11.7 Nuclear Decay Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 11.8 Core Practical 15: Investigating Gamma Radiation Absorption
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 11.9 The Random Nature of Nuclear Decay
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 11.10 Equations for Nuclear Physics
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 12. Gravitational Fields
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • Gravitational Fields
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 12.1 Gravitational Fields
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 12.2 Gravitational Field Strength
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 12.3 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 12.4 Gravitational Field due to a Point Mass
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 12.5 Gravitational Potential for a Radial Field
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 12.6 Comparing Electric & Gravitational Fields
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 12.7 Orbital Motion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 13. Oscillations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • Simple Harmonic Motion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 13.1 Conditions for Simple Harmonic Motion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 13.2 Equations for Simple Harmonic Motion
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 13.3 Period of Simple Harmonic Oscillators
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 13.4 Displacement-Time Graph for an Oscillator
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 13.5 Velocity-Time Graph for an Oscillator
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • Resonance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 13.6 Resonance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 13.7 Core Practical 16: Investigating Resonance
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 13.8 Damped & Undamped Oscillating Systems
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 13.9 Free & Forced Oscillations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 13.10 Resonance Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 13.11 Damping & Plastic Deformation


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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Author: Deva



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