Government Intervention in Markets
- Nearly every economy in the world is a mixed economy and has varying degrees of government intervention
- Governments intervention is necessary for several reasons
A diagram showing several reasons for government intervention in mixed economic systems
- Correct market failure: in many markets there is a less than optimal allocation of resources from society's point of view
- In maximising their self-interest, firms and individuals will not self-correct this allocation of resources and there is a role for the government
- They often achieve this by influencing the level of production or consumption
- Earn government revenue: governments need money to provide essential services, public and merit goods
- Revenue is raised through intervention such as taxation, privatisation, sale of licenses (e.g. 5G licenses), and sale of goods/services
- Promote equity: to reduce the opportunity gap between the rich and poor
- Support firms: in a global economy, governments choose to support key industries so as to help them remain competitive
- Support poorer households: poverty has multiple impacts on both the individual and the economy
- Intervention seeks to redistribute income (tax the rich and give to the poor) so as to reduce the impact of poverty
- Four of the most common methods used to intervene in markets are indirect taxation, use of subsidies, maximum prices, and minimum prices
Indirect Taxation
- An indirect tax can be either ad valorem or specific
Ad Valorem Tax
- Value added tax (VAT) is 20% in the UK in 2022. The more goods/services consumed, the larger the tax bill
- This causes the second supply curve to diverge from the original supply curve
- VAT raises significant government revenue
A diagram showing an ad valorem tax (VAT) and the tax incidence for producers and consumers
Diagram Analysis
- Initial equilibrium is at P1Q1
- Supply shifts left due to the tax from S → S + tax
- The two supply curves diverge as percentage tax means more tax is paid at higher prices
- Consumer incidence of tax is (P2 - P1) x Q2 - Area A
- Producer incidence of tax is (P1 - P3) x Q2 - Area B
- New equilibrium is at P2Q2
- Final price is higher (P2) and QD is lower (Q2)
- Final price is higher (P2) and QD is lower (Q2)
Specific Tax on Negative Externality of Production
- Governments frequently tax firms that pollute or create harmful external costs in production
A diagram that shows the impact of a tax on a product that is over-provided in society. The tax reduces the welfare loss and moves production closer to the optimum level of production
Diagram Analysis
- The free-market equilibrium is at PeQe - where MSB = MPC
- Market failure exists as MSC > MSB at equilibrium
- Optimum level of output is at Qopt
- There is over-provision of this product
- A specific tax shifts the supply curve left from S → S1
- The tax does not completely eradicate the welfare loss but moves the market closer to the optimum level of output (Qopt)
- The welfare loss has been reduced as shown in the diagram
- The new market equilibrium is at P1Q1
- This is a higher price and less output
- There is less over-provision and so less market failure
- The external costs have been reduced
Specific Tax on Negative Externality of Consumption
- Governments frequently tax demerit goods such as cigarettes, alcohol, fatty foods, and polluting vehicles
A diagram that shows the impact of a tax on a product that is over-consumed in society. The tax reduces the welfare loss and moves consumption closer to the optimum level of production
Diagram Analysis
- The free-market equilibrium is at PeQe - where MPB = MSC
- Market failure exists as MSC > MSB at equilibrium
- Optimum level of consumption is at Qopt
- There is over-consumption of this product
- A specific tax shifts the supply curve left from S → S1
- The tax does not completely eradicate the welfare loss but moves the market closer to the optimum level of output (Qopt)
- The welfare loss has been reduced as shown in the diagram
- The new market equilibrium is at P1Q1
- This is a higher price and lower output
- There is less over-consumption and so less market failure
- The external costs have been reduced
Subsidies
- Governments frequently use subsidies to encourage production/consumption of merit goods such as energy efficient products, electric vehicles, healthcare, and education
A diagram that shows the impact of a subsidy on a product that is under-consumed in society. The subsidy reduces the potential welfare gain and moves consumption closer to the optimum level
Diagram Analysis
- The free-market equilibrium is at PeQe - where MPB = MSC
- Market failure exists as MSB > MSC at equilibrium
- Optimum level of output is at Qopt
- There is under-consumption of this product
- A subsidy shifts the supply curve right from S → S1
- It does not completely eradicate the potential welfare gain but moves the market closer to the optimum level of output (Qopt)
- The potential welfare gain has been reduced as shown in the diagram
- The new market equilibrium is at P1Q1
- This is a lower price and higher output
- There is less under-consumption and so less market failure
- Some of the external benefits available have been realised
Maximum Prices
- Governments will often use maximum prices in order to help consumers. Sometimes they are used for long periods of time e.g. housing rental markets. Other times they are short-term solutions to unusual price increases e.g. petrol
- A maximum price is set by the government below the existing free market equilibrium price and sellers cannot legally sell the good/service at a higher price
A diagram that shows the imposition of a maximum price (Pmax) which sits below the free market price (Pe) and creates a condition of excess demand (shortage)
Diagram Analysis
- Initial market equilibrium is at PeQe
- A maximum price is imposed at Pmax
- The lower price reduces the incentive to supply and there is contraction in QS from Qe → Qs
- The lower price increases the incentive to consume and there is an extension in QD from Qe → Qd
- This creates a condition of excess demand QsQd
- Some consumers benefit as they purchase at lower prices
- Others are unable to purchase due to the shortage
- This unmet demand usually encourages the creation of illegal markets (black/grey markets)
Minimum Prices
- Governments will often use minimum prices in order to help producers or to decrease consumption of a demerit good e.g. alcohol
- A minimum price is set by the government above the existing free market equilibrium price and sellers cannot legally sell the good/service at a lower price
- Minimum prices are also used in the labour market to protect workers from wage exploitation. These are called minimum wages
A diagram that shows the imposition of a minimum price (Pmin) which sits above the free market price (Pe) and creates a condition of excess supply (surplus)
Diagram Analysis
- Initial market equilibrium is at PeQe
- A minimum price is imposed at Pmin
- The higher price increases the incentive to supply and there is an extension in QS from Qe → Qs
- The higher price decreases the incentive to consume and there is a contraction in QD from Qe → Qd
- This creates a condition of excess supply QdQs
Differences in Government Responses to the Excess Supply
- In agricultural markets, if a minimum price is set by the government producers benefit as they receive a higher price
- Governments will often purchase the excess supply and export it
- In demerit markets, producers suffer as QD contracts
- Governments will not purchase the excess supply
- Producers usually lower their output in the market to match the QD at the minimum price