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Edexcel A Level Chemistry

Revision Notes

Home / A Level / Chemistry / Edexcel / Revision Notes / 5. Advanced Physical Chemistry (A Level Only) / 5.4 Energetics II: Entropy / 5.4.1 Introducing Entropy


5.4.1 Introducing Entropy


Introducing Entropy

  • You may have wondered why it is that endothermic reactions occur at all, after all, what can be the driving force behind endothermic reactions if the products end up in a less stable, higher energy state?
  • Although the majority of chemical reactions we experience everyday are exothermic,  ΔHꝋ alone is not enough to explain why endothermic reactions occur

Reaction Kinetics Endothermic Reaction Activation Energy, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

The driving force behind chemical reactions cannot be explained by enthalpy changes alone as it makes not sense for chemical to end up in a less stable higher energy state in endothermic reactions

  • The answer is entropy

Chaos in the universe

  • The entropy (S) of a given system is the number of possible arrangements of the particles and their energy in a given system
    • In other words, it is a measure of how disordered or chaotic a system is

  • When a system becomes more disordered, its entropy will increase
  • An increase in entropy means that the system becomes energetically more stable

  • An example of a system that becomes more disordered is when a solid is melted
  • For example, melting ice to form liquid water:

H2O (s) → H2O (l)

  • The water molecules in ice are in fixed positions and can only vibrate about those positions
  • In the liquid state, the particles are still quite close together but are arranged more randomly, in that they can move around each other
  • Water molecules in the liquid state are therefore more disordered
  • Thus, for a given substance, the entropy increases when its solid form melts into a liquid
  • In both examples, the system with the higher entropy will be energetically favourable (as the energy of the system is more spread out when it is in a disordered state)

Entropy change, downloadable AS & A Level Chemistry revision notes

Melting a solid will cause the particles to become more disordered resulting in a higher entropy state

Entropy Changes

Production of a gas

  • During the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) the entropy of the system increases:

CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

  • In this decomposition reaction, a gas molecule (CO2) is formed
  • The CO2 gas molecule is more disordered than the solid reactant (CaCO3), as it is constantly moving around
  • As a result, the system has become more disordered and there is an increase in entropy

  • Another example is the reaction of ethanoic acid with ammonium carbonate

(NH4)2CO3 (s) + 2CH3COOH (aq) → 2CH3COO- (aq) + 2NH4+ (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l) 

  • There is a slight fall in temperature during the reaction indicating the process is endothermic
    • Energy is taken in from the surroundings
  • The particles are well-ordered in the solid, and the disorder increases because a solution and, especially, a gas is formed so entropy increases during the reaction

Dissolving a solid

  • When ammonium nitrate is dissolved in water, the temperature of the solution decreases, therefore the process is endothermic
    • Energy is taken in from the surroundings

NH4NO3 (s) + aq → NH4+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)    ΔH = 25.7 kJ mol-1

  • The level of disorder increases as the particles are no longer in a fixed position and are now free to move

  • However, it is not always this simple!
  • When an ionic solid dissolves
    • Bonds between the particles are broken increasing the disorder and taking in energy 
    • Bonds between the solvent and particles are made reducing the disorder and releasing energy
  • Therefore it is difficult to predict whether the process will be endothermic or exothermic 

Endothermic reactions between two solids 

  • When barium hydroxide and ammonium chloride are mixed, they form a paste and the temperature drops significantly 
  • Therefore this is an endothermic process
    • Energy is taken in from the surroundings

2NH4Cl (s) + Ba(OH)2.8H2O (s)  → BaCl2.2H2O (s) + 2NH3 (g) + 8H2O (l)

  • The gas produced is ammonia and this can be detected by the smell and it will turn damp red litmus paper blue
  • When two solids are mixed and react together, the entropy change will depend on the physical state of the compounds made and not just on the energy changes in the reaction
  • Two solids will of course have a very low entropy due to the high order 
  • If a liquid or gas is produced the entropy will have increased due to the increased disorder of the particles 



  • 1. Physical Chemistry
    • 1.1 Atomic Structure
      • 1.1.1 Structure of the Atom
        • 1.1.2 Isotopes
          • 1.1.3 Relative Mass
            • 1.1.4 Mass Spectrometry
            • 1.2 Ions & Electrons
              • 1.2.1 Ionisation Energy
                • 1.2.2 Quantum Shells
                  • 1.2.3 Orbitals
                    • 1.2.4 Electronic Configurations
                    • 1.3 The Periodic Table
                      • 1.3.1 Periodicity
                      • 1.4 Bonding
                        • 1.4.1 Ionic Bonding Overview
                          • 1.4.2 Representing Ionic Bonding
                            • 1.4.3 Ionic Trends
                              • 1.4.4 Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds
                                • 1.4.5 Covalent Bonding Overview
                                  • 1.4.6 Covalent Dot-and-Cross Diagrams
                                    • 1.4.7 Bond Length & Bond Strength
                                      • 1.4.8 Shapes of Covalent Compounds
                                      • 1.5 Structure
                                        • 1.5.1 Electronegativity
                                          • 1.5.2 Intermolecular Forces
                                            • 1.5.3 Hydrogen Bonding
                                              • 1.5.4 Intermolecular Forces & Physical Properties
                                                • 1.5.5 Metallic Bonding
                                                  • 1.5.6 Giant Lattices
                                                    • 1.5.7 Covalent Structures
                                                      • 1.5.8 Predicting Structures
                                                      • 1.6 Formulae, Equations & Avogadro
                                                        • 1.6.1 Empirical & Molecular Formulae
                                                          • 1.6.2 Balanced Equations
                                                            • 1.6.3 Applying Equations
                                                              • 1.6.4 The Mole & the Avogadro Constant
                                                                • 1.6.5 Amount of Substance Calculations
                                                                • 1.7 Reaction Calculations
                                                                  • 1.7.1 Reacting Volume Calculations
                                                                    • 1.7.2 Titrations
                                                                      • 1.7.3 Error & Uncertainty
                                                                        • 1.7.4 Yield & Atom Economy
                                                                        • 1.8 Energetics I
                                                                          • 1.8.1 Enthalpy Changes
                                                                            • 1.8.2 Enthalpy Level Diagrams
                                                                              • 1.8.3 Calorimetry
                                                                                • 1.8.4 Hess Cycles
                                                                                  • 1.8.5 Bond Enthalpy
                                                                                  • 1.9 Kinetics I
                                                                                    • 1.9.1 Collision Theory & Rates
                                                                                      • 1.9.2 Calculating Rates of Reaction
                                                                                        • 1.9.3 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distributions
                                                                                          • 1.9.4 Catalysts in Industry
                                                                                          • 1.10 Equilibrium I
                                                                                            • 1.10.1 Dynamic Equilibrium
                                                                                              • 1.10.2 Le Chatelier's Principle
                                                                                                • 1.10.3 The Rate & Yield Compromise
                                                                                                  • 1.10.4 Deducing Kc Expressions
                                                                                                • 2. Inorganic Chemistry
                                                                                                  • 2.1 Redox I
                                                                                                    • 2.1.1 Oxidation Number
                                                                                                      • 2.1.2 Types of Reduction & Oxidation
                                                                                                        • 2.1.3 Redox & Disproportionation
                                                                                                          • 2.1.4 Ionic Equations
                                                                                                          • 2.2 Groups 1 & 2
                                                                                                            • 2.2.1 Explaining Group 2 Trends
                                                                                                              • 2.2.2 Reactions of Group 2
                                                                                                                • 2.2.3 Group 2 Hydroxides & Sulfates
                                                                                                                  • 2.2.4 Group 2 Carbonates & Nitrates
                                                                                                                    • 2.2.5 Flame Tests
                                                                                                                    • 2.3 Group 7
                                                                                                                      • 2.3.1 Group 7 Trends
                                                                                                                        • 2.3.2 Halogen Displacement Reactions
                                                                                                                          • 2.3.3 Halogen Redox Reactions
                                                                                                                            • 2.3.4 Halide Ion Reactions
                                                                                                                          • 3. Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                            • 3.1 Introduction to Organic Chemistry
                                                                                                                              • 3.1.1 Formulae of Organic Compounds
                                                                                                                                • 3.1.2 Homologous Series & Functional Groups
                                                                                                                                  • 3.1.3 Nomenclature & Classification
                                                                                                                                    • 3.1.4 Structural Isomerism
                                                                                                                                      • 3.1.5 Stereoisomerism
                                                                                                                                      • 3.2 Alkanes
                                                                                                                                        • 3.2.1 Describing Alkanes
                                                                                                                                          • 3.2.2 Alkane Fuels
                                                                                                                                            • 3.2.3 Pollution from Combustion
                                                                                                                                              • 3.2.4 Reducing Pollution
                                                                                                                                                • 3.2.5 Free Radicals
                                                                                                                                                • 3.3 Alkenes
                                                                                                                                                  • 3.3.1 Describing Alkenes
                                                                                                                                                    • 3.3.2 Bonding in Alkenes
                                                                                                                                                      • 3.3.3 Electrophilic Addition
                                                                                                                                                        • 3.3.4 Electrophilic Addition Mechanism
                                                                                                                                                          • 3.3.5 Saturation Test
                                                                                                                                                            • 3.3.6 Addition Polymerisation
                                                                                                                                                              • 3.3.7 Waste Polymers
                                                                                                                                                              • 3.4 Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                • 3.4.1 Classifying Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                  • 3.4.2 Nucleophilic Substitution
                                                                                                                                                                    • 3.4.3 Nucleophilic Substitution Mechanism
                                                                                                                                                                      • 3.4.4 Hydrolysis of Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                        • 3.4.5 Reactivity of Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                        • 3.5 Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                          • 3.5.1 Classifying Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                            • 3.5.2 Reactions of Alcohols
                                                                                                                                                                              • 3.5.3 Organic Liquid Preparation & Purification
                                                                                                                                                                              • 3.6 Modern Analytical Techniques I
                                                                                                                                                                                • 3.6.1 Mass Spectrometry
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 3.6.2 Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy
                                                                                                                                                                                • 4. Core Chemistry Practicals
                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.1 Physical Chemistry Core Practicals
                                                                                                                                                                                    • 4.1.1 Molar Volume of a Gas
                                                                                                                                                                                      • 4.1.2 Standard Solutions
                                                                                                                                                                                        • 4.1.3 Determining Concentrations
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.1.4 Determining Enthalpy Change of Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                                          • 4.2 Inorganic & Organic Chemistry Core Practicals
                                                                                                                                                                                            • 4.2.1 Hydrolysis of Halogenoalkanes
                                                                                                                                                                                              • 4.2.2 Ethanol Oxidation
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 4.2.3 Chlorination of 2-Methylpropan-2-ol
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 4.2.4 Qualitative Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5. Advanced Physical Chemistry (A Level Only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.1 Equilibrium II
                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.1.1 Deducing Kp Expressions
                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.1.2 Equilbrium Constant Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.1.3 Reaction Conditions & The Equilibrium Constant
                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.2 Acid-base Equilibria
                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.2.1 Brønsted–Lowry Acids & Bases
                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.2.2 pH
                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.2.3 Acid Strength
                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.2.4 Ionic Product of Water
                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.2.5 Measuring and Comparing pH
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.2.6 Titration Curves
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.2.7 Buffers
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.2.8 Weak Acid - Strong Base Titration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.3 Energetics II: Born-Haber
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.3.1 Lattice Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.3.2 Born-Haber Cycles
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.3.3 Polarising Power
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.3.4 Enthalpy of Solution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.4 Energetics II: Entropy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.4.1 Introducing Entropy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.4.2 Entropy Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.4.3 Gibbs Free Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.4.4 Feasible Reactions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.5 Kinetics II
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.5.1 Rates of Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 5.5.2 Rate Equations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 5.5.3 Rates - Experimental Techniques
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 5.5.4 Initial Rates Method
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 5.5.5 Continuous Monitoring Method
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 5.5.6 Reaction Order Graphs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 5.5.7 Rate-Determining Steps
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 5.5.8 Rates & Reaction Mechanisms
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 5.5.9 Arrhenius & Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6. Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (A Level Only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.1 Redox II
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.1.1 Reduction & Oxidation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.1.2 Standard Electrode Potential
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.1.3 Measuring Standard Electrode Potential
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.1.4 Conventional Cell Representation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.1.5 Thermodynamics & Electrode Potential
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.1.6 Disproportionation & Electrode Potential
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.1.7 Storage Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.1.8 Fuel Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.1.9 Redox Titration Calculations
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.2 Principles of Transition Metal Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.2.1 Transition Metals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.2.2 Transition Metal Complexes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.2.3 Coloured Ions
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.2.4 Ligands
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.2.5 Octahedral Complexes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.2.6 Tetrahedral Complexes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.2.7 Cis-platin
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.2.8 Haemoglobin
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 6.2.9 Catalysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 6.2.10 Heterogeneous Catalysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 6.2.11 Homogeneous Catalysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.2.12 Autocatalysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 6.3 Reactions of Transition Metal Elements
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 6.3.1 Vanadium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 6.3.2 Chromium
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 6.3.3 Reactions of Ions in Aqueous Solution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 6.3.4 Ligand Exchange
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7. Advanced Organic Chemistry (A Level Only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.1 Organic Chemistry II: Chirality
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.1.1 Chirality
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.2 Organic Chemistry II: Carbonyl Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.2.1 Carbonyl Compounds
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.2.2 Testing for Carbonyls
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.3 Organic Chemistry II: Carboxylic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.3.1 Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.3.2 Preparation of Carboxylic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.3.3 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.3.4 Acyl Chlorides & Esters
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.4 Organic Chemistry III: Aromatic Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.4.1 Benzene Structure
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.4.2 Reactions of Benzene
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.4.3 Electrophilic Substitution
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.4.4 Phenol
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.5 Organic Chemistry III: Nitrogen Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.5.1 Amines, Amides, Amino Acids & Proteins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.5.2 Primary Aliphatic Amines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.5.3 Amine Basicity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.5.4 Aromatic Amine Formation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.5.5 Amide Chemistry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.5.6 Condensation Polymerisation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.5.7 Amino Acids & Proteins
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.6 Organic Chemistry III: Organic Synthesis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.6.1 Deducing Organic Structures
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.6.2 Planning Reaction Schemes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.6.3 Increasing Chain Length
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 7.6.4 Organic Techniques - Preparation
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 7.6.5 Organic Techniques - Purification
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.6.6 Organic Techniques - Purity
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 7.7 Modern Analytical Techniques II
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 7.7.1 Mass Spectrometry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 7.7.2 Carbon-13 NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 7.7.3 Proton NMR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 7.7.4 Thin-Layer Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 7.7.5 Other Chromatography
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8. Advanced Core Practicals (A Level Only)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.1 Advanced Physical Chemistry Core Practicals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        • 8.1.1 Finding Ka Values
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          • 8.1.2 Electrochemical Cells
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            • 8.1.3 Rates of Reaction
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.1.4 Activation Energy
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              • 8.2 Advanced Inorganic & Organic Chemistry Core Practicals
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                • 8.2.1 Redox Titration
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  • 8.2.2 Transition Metal Complexes
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    • 8.2.3 A-Level Qualitative Analysis
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      • 8.2.4 Aspirin Preparation


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